Chapter 4 TAMENGLONG DISTRICT: A DESCRIPTION Tamenglong district is one of the most backward areas in the State of Manipur with several unique features. The district Headquarters is 150 kms away from Imphal and the Tamenglong Head-Quarters is at the latitude of I,280 mts. above Sea level. The district is inhabited pre-dominantly by the Zeliangrong Nagas which include Zeme, Liangmai, Rongmei or Kabui and Puimei tribes. Some Chin Kuki Mizo group of the tribes largely Thadous and Nepalese are also found. Under the protective policy of the tribes, the Government of India prohibits the non-tribals to own lands in the tribal hill areas. Hence, other ethnic groups such as Meiteis, Assamese, Marwaris, Biharis, Bengalese, Malaylees, Tamils and the like who reside in Tamenglong district and earn their living either by working as white collar workers or through trading, do not own any immovable property like land. Tamenglong district occupies the north-western part of Manipur, which lies, amidst the picturesque hills of Manipur. It is an outlaying district bordering Nagaland in the north and Assam in the west, on the other sides; this district is surrounded by other parts of the districts, i.e. Senapati district in the north-east, Churachanpur district in the south, and Jiribam sub-division of Imphal district in the south-west. Tamenglong district is considered as one of the most beautiful districts of Manipur. Its' mysterious caves such as Tharon Caves, splendid waterfalls, Buning valley (also called as Inpiulong valley or otherwise known as Inmiuning) situated on the peak of the mountain, deep gorges and exotic orchids are unique attractions. Tamenglong district is full of natural resources such as bamboos, medicinal, aromatic and endangered plants but the Zeliangrong people hardly have an opportunity to join and compete with the rest of the world due to backwardness. 116
TAMENGLONG DISTRICT TAMENGLONG DISTRICT ~ ~ 'f" 11' ". 't'.,." f f/ r 1 ~, CHATOH \., --..,. \.. Ltl'flA ). I \. \..) I (. I... t I.~..._. l!a - Q.i,_ 'I.., - / [ I '( ~ j IU II) C#RACHANOPU R J>ISTRICT ~.. 1. ( I j.i - ""'. \ i 1.. 80UNOARY,STAH... - -"- " DISTRICT..... - - - u SU8 DIVISiON... - - - DISTRICT HEAoWTEAS...... SU8 01VISDIIAL HEADQUART RS 0 NATIOH.\l Hl:iHWAY......II!IJL. ROAD.:... -- RIV 11... ~ VILLAGE HAVIHII J:JeO' A8M I'OPIJUTDII WITH IW4l...... POST ANl TEI.fGiw>H CfFICf.. TOtlliSfHOME inspe(t~ Bti«;AI.OW........ KAill PTO TH,18 Tamenglong District indicating its four sub-divisions viz, Tamenglong subdivision, Tousem sub-division, Nungba sub-division and Tamei sub-division. 117
Tamenglong district covers an area of 4,391 sq. kms and it is situated in between 24 30 and 25 30 latitudes and 93 0 and 94 0 longitudes. According to Gangmumei Kamei (2000), Tamenglong is a Meitei (Manipuris) word, corrupted from the Rongmei (lnrianglong-village of bamboo forest) name of the biggest village, popularly known as Tamenglong Khunjao. He holds that this village has a long history of two thousand years. He also mentions that, after the Kuki rebellion of 1917-1919, the Government ofmanipur had established two sub-divisions, the north west and north east. The head quarter of the North West sub-division was located at Tamenglong village and that of the north east was at Ukhrul. Kamei affirms that, the head quarters of northwest sub-division was shifted to the present site known as Tamenglong headquarters which is different from Tamenglong village in 1923. Later, the sub-division was renamed as Tamenglong Sub-Division after the bifurcation of the erstwhile northwest sub-division into several subdivisions like, Churachanpur, Mao and Sadar. The sub-division was up-graded into a district, called Manipur west district in 1969, which was later on changed to Tamenglong. The district has a temperate monsoon climate with variations in temperature depending on rainfall and elevation. Rainfall is generally heavy in the district with a precipitation of3,264.10 mm. recorded in Tamenglong Head-Quarters in 1983. As a result of the high altitude and heavy rainfall, there are mild summers and cold winters. The two important resources of the district are its forests and water. The district is traversed by two rivers viz the Barak (the biggest river in the State) and the Irang. Other important rivers are Jiri, Tupul, Makru and Leimatak. The Census of India 2001 reveals that amenities and infrastructure facility available in the district includes eight Primary Health Centre and twenty seven Primary Health Sub Centre in the district. And, the drinking water facilities are provided in one hundred and seventy one villages. People in the remaining villages fetch water by walking to the nearby brooks, rivers or collect water when it rains. 118
As per the Census of India 200 I, the total number of villages in Tamenglong district is 203 (two hundred and three) only and there is no town except the district headquarters. In these villages, the roads are in a bad condition. Only 16% of roads are black topped and 14% of roads are paved approach roads, wherein only concrete stones are laid. The diagram shows that 34% are considered as mud approach roads, whereas 36% are extremely small roads, hardly viable to travel in the hills. Figure 4.1: Black Topped Roads in Tamenglong District: None at all 36% Mud appraoch roads 34% aved approach roads 14% Table 4:2 Power in Tamenglong district. Sub-division No. of villages No. ofvillages electrified Tamenglong 47 37 Tamei 44 11 Tousem 55 21 Nungba 71 30 Total 207 99 % of villages electrified 78.72 25.00 38.18 42.25 48 119
As can be seen in table 4.2; Tamenglong district suffers from lack of electricity or power. Just 48% of villages are electrified as per the government record. Even the electrified villages receive erratic power supply. The Census of India 2001 discloses that the total literacy rate in the district is 59.25% with males 68.72% and females 48.95%. In the context of educational institutions as shown in the figure 4:3, the district has fifteen secondary and senior secondary schools, sixty eight middle Gunior high) schools, one hundred and fifty seven primary schools with one degree college only. The professional institutions like engineering and medical colleges are not available in the district. Besides, the quality of education, particularly in schools is poor. Hence, the State Government has been emphasizing on improving the quality of education at all levels, starting from the primary stage. Figure 4:3 Educational Institutions in Tamenglong district. College Secondary schools Middle Schools Primary Schools Population growth trend says that it is on the higher side than the national average. In the Census of 200 1, the total population in the district has increased to 1,11,499 persons wherein the males constitute 58,014 and females 53,485. The sex ratio of females per 1000 males is 922 and the sex ratio of children between the ages of 0-6 years is 936. The Scheduled Tribes comprise 95.38% with a few Schedules Castes such as muchi (cobbler), and other generic castes. As revealed in 120
table 4:4, the Census Directorate at Imphal reveals that the growth rate m Tamenglong from 1991 to 2001 is 25%. Table 4:4 Demography Year Population Decadal Manipur's National's growth growth rate of decadal growth decadal Tamenglong rate(%) growth rate district (%) (%) 1951 33,519 - - - 1961 37,667 12.38 35.04 21.51 1971 46,034 22.21 37.53 24.80 1981 62,289 35.31 32.46 24.66 1991 86,278 38.51 29.29 23.85 2001 1,08,295 25.91 30.00 21.34 (Source: Government oflndia, the Census Directorate, Imp hal, 2001 ). Table 4:5 shows that the population of children in the district below the age of four years is 10,057, those between five to fourteen years is 27,532, whereas fifteen to fifty nine years amounts to 66,620 and, the total number of elders who are sixty years and above are 7,290. The NGO called Oriental Rural Development Organization had estimated that about I 0,000 Kukis left the district owing to ethnic conflict early in 1993-94. Table 4:5 Age Groups in Tamenglong District 0-4 years 10,057 5-14 years 27,532 15-59 years 66,620 60 years & above 7,290 (Source: Census of India 2001 ). 121
TAMEI SUB-DIVISION IN T AMENGLONG DISTRICT The Tamenglong district is divided into four sub-divisions viz, Tamenglong sub-division, Tousem sub-division, Nungba sub-division and Tamei sub-division respectively. Since this study is conducted in Tamei sub-division, I shall elaborate about its background. Tamei sub-division is around 119 kms via Kangpokpi or I.T. road from Imphal (Capital of Manipur) and the area is one hundred square krn. The unique characteristic of Tamei sub-division lies in its natural beauty, its lofty green hillocks, waterfalls, curved landscape, cool weather, exotic orchids, flora and fauna. Rainfall is generally heavy in the district. Due to the high altitude and incessant rains, there are mild summers and cold winters. Sometimes it even rains for more than 20 (twenty) days continuously. This small area is enchanting with the presence of small brooks of river and rare species of plants, birds and animals. Tamei town can also be connected by another road i.e. via Tamenglong Head Quarters which is 188 krns from Imphal. Nowadays, the Manipur State Road Transport Corporation (MSRTC) remains suspended its service and a few private buses are plying between Imphal and Tamei on a daily basis. The transport and communication system to Tamei is woefully inadequate as seen through I.T.Road via Kangpokpi in Senapati district. The roads have potholes and depressions adorning it for the past several decades but they have not been properly repaired or re-constructed for years. Khongsang road in Tamenglong district is becoming much better with the intervention of the Border Road Task Force (BRTF). The area is not connected either by air or railways although a helicopter under special programme and during emergency of the government can be landed at the hill top at Tamei. The lone Public Health Centre (PHC) is situated at Tamei Head Quarters. The population of Tamei is mainly tribal. The predominant religion is Christianity (99.9% of the total population). There were 19,700 people in the Tamei subdivision as per Census of India 1991. But, things have comparatively changed according to the Census of India 2001, for it reveals that the total population of 122
Tamei sub-division has increased to 21,829 in which there are 11,200 males and 1 0,629 females. There are 44 villages in total but the area is relatively underdeveloped and poorly integrated with the rest of the State. Table 4:6 Distributions of Schools in Tamei sub-division: Schools Government Semi Government Private Total Pre Primary School 9 '"> -' 0 12 Primary School 24 2 2 28 Junior/Middle School 7 0 0 7 High School 1 1 1 Total 41 6 3 50 (Source: 12 September 2005, http://164.1 00.149.67/cicmampur/profile/profile.asp)... -' The local people often complained that the administrative and judicial offices are almost redundant. The government institutions like the State Bank of lndia located at Tamei was closed down in 1980s when insurgents ransacked it. The postal service moves at a snail ' s pace and sometimes it would come to a standstill. The telephone service does not operate on a regular basis due to lack of staff and technical problems. Besides, frequent landslides during the rainy season cut-off Tamei sub-division from the rest of the civilization. Another major problem being faced by the people is the non-availability of doctors, medicines and other related health care infrastructure. Despite the assurance given with a slogan to provide all healthcare services known as "Health for all by 2000 AD," Tamei sub-division is still lacking basic health facilities. Although official records are not available, members of the local community complained that several. women died during delivery due to lack of essential medical facilities in the Tamei Primary Health Centre (PHC). The civil society has been raising their voices against the administration, judicial and legislative functionaries. Sometimes, they have been holding strikes (dharnas) and submitting memoranda as well as petitions to the successive State governments but their 123
successive State governments but their complaints have been ignored. This reality also reveals that the Autonomous District Council (ADC) is ineffective. The transportation and communication systems in the interior villages of Tamei sub-division have not been extended by the State Government. Lack of proper communication system has become one of the main obstructions in the socio-economic development of the Liangmai Nagas. There are many villages in the district which are not accessible by vehicles as mentioned above. In such a situation, the Liangmai Naga villagers are mostly unaware of the Governmental welfare programmes and are cut off from the mainstream society. The State, in this 21 51 century, should develop the physical infrastructure in such interior villages by constructing the roads and widening the communication facilities to link the villages with the rest of the world. COMMUNITY INFORMATION CENTRE AT T AMEI HEAD QUARTERS In 2001, the Ministry of Communications & Information Technology under the Department of Information Technology, National Informatics Centre: Manipur State Unit had established a Community Information Centre (CIC) at Tamei Head Quarters and it provided a few computers with internet facility in public interest. CIC centre is located at the office of the Sub-Divisional Officer (SDO) in the heart of Tamei town. In spite of frequent power failure, this centre manages to render services to the general public. The CIC offers internet browsing, e-mail, typing and printing at low rates. Occasionally, the CIC encounters problems because of the limitations of infrastructural facilities at their disposal. However, they have managed to conduct three computer awareness camps so far. During such awareness campaigns, they are able to communicate with the local community about the significance of Information Technology. The consciousness of opportunities by connecting to the outside world gradually has crept into the Liangmai Naga people in a powerful way. 124
LATEST MAP OF TAMEI SUB-DIVISION, TAMENGLONG DISTRICT, MANIPUR. SCA.LE 0 L...-..,.. _ MII.. ES 4 6 7 N INDEX 1. SUB-DIVISION BOUNDARY... - - - - - 2. HEAD QUARTERS... 3. RIVER, STREAM... ~ 4. MOTORABLE ROAD... -- 5. JEEPABLE ROAD.:...... ----- 6. I.V. ROAD (PATH)... 7. BRIDGE... 8. CULVERT...... 9. VILLAGE......:... e 10. NEWKONPHUNG... -,/.. (,. KHUNDONG \ KHUNKHAIBA I,.... -.-... ) 125
Through the CIC, people keep on instant contacts with others especially in times of emergencies. The government employees also browse internet to access to necessary information for official purposes. Instead of traveling all the way to Imphal for getting their mark-sheets when the Matriculation results are announced by the Board of Secondary Schools, Imphal, Manipur, the students downloaded their results from the internet and take print-out of their mark-sheets from the CIC itself. The CIC also assists the Sub-Divisional Officer (SDO) in computerizing the lists of people who are living below poverty line (BPL). Often, the CIC serves as the medium for extracting news items from the relevant sites for the local weekly news "Pawancham" that functions under an NGO called Social Educational Cultural and Economic Development Society (SECEDS). Thus, the editor downloads news from various sites with the help of the CIC and translates it into Liangmai Naga dialect for publishing it in the weekly newsletter that is circulated widely among the Liangmai Naga tribe not only in Manipur but even in Assam and Nagaland. The CIC has given one-month Computer Literacy training to eleven individuals (ten males and one female) consisting of the staff of Sub-Divisional Office (SDO), students, teachers and unemployed youth during 15th October to 15th December 2004. A handful of young professionals have been recruited on a temporary basis to do administrative work in the CIC. The salary of the staff is supported by the National Informatics Centre, Manipur State Unit. ZELIANGRONG NAG AS IN THE DISTRICT* Gangmumei Kamei (2004) states that the term "Zeliangrong" was coined on 15th February 1947 at the first Zeliangrong Conference when the Zeliangrong Council was established at Imphal (Capital of Manipur). He rightly points out that *A detail description of Zeliangrong Nagas, particularly the Liangmai Naga tribe, is provided in appendix-vii as the examiner has commented that the discussion on the Zeliangrong Naga is rather sketchy and does not educate a reader who might be unfamiliar with the ethnography ofmanipur. 126
the term is a combination of the prefixes of their respective ethnonym; Ze-Liang Rong - Zeliangrong. Interestingly, Kamei argues that the fourth tribe Puimei was included in the community organization, either Kabui Samiti or Kabui Naga association. He affirms that the community's oath taking ceremony (Chuk-thoibou in Liangmai dialect or Chuksumei in Rongmei dialect) declares the solidarity and common brotherhood on 1st April, 1934 at Tamenglong in which the elder representatives of Zeme, Liangmai, Rongmei, Puimei and even Maram were present. The Rongmeis are also known as Kabui (coined by the Meiteis) or Maruangmei. The Kabui Samiti was apparently formed on 4th March 1934 at Imphal. Gangmumei observes that it was the ritual basis of this brotherhood called Zeliangrong and pursuant to the historic decision of 1947, the names of all community organizations were changed over to Zeliangrong. Thereafter, Pan Zeliangrong solidarity was established in Manipur, Nagaland and Assam. Indisputably, Zeliangrong Nagas have common traditional analogy except slight difference in dialects. They use in all probability spoken in Liangmai Naga dialect evolved into four distinctive dialects. The traditional folk songs of the Rongmei, Zem~ and Puimei are sung in Liangmai dialect till today which is the ample evidence of the same ancestry. Like the olden days, some of the Zeliangrong Nagas at present chants in Liangmai dialect while performing the traditional rites and rituals. Zehol (1998:69) also affirms it by saying that; The only difference of these sub-tribes is that they have distinctive dialect of their own and habitat scattered in contiguous areas. It is believed that in the earliest days, they spoke only one common dialect that is most probably the present Liangmai Naga dialect. There are certain facts for saying that the Liangmai Naga dialect might be the common dialect of the Zeliangrong Naga tribe in the olden days until they have migrated to the present area... Until recently, the other two sub-tribes (Zemes and Rongmeis) used to speak in Liangmai dialect whenever they performed religious rituals. Secondly, most of the religious languages, folk songs etc were composed in Liangmai Naga. Third, all names of their great 127
grandfathers were named in Liangmai and also all names and titles of the folk tales, legends etc were given in Liangmai Naga dialect. Analyzing the problem of Zeliangrong Naga identity, Gangmumei Kamei (ibid: 12) points out that in Naga Hills district before the recognition of the Statehood of Nagaland (1 December 1963), Kabui tribe was recognized. But, in Assam, both Zeme (written as Jeme) and Rongmei or Kabui was covered by the category of "Any Naga Tribe" Scheduled Tribe status. In Nagaland, the name "Zeliang" meaning Zeme and Liangmai were recognized leaving the Rongmei as the officers belonging to Rongmei tribe refused to accept the Kabui tribe status, though they were recognized in their home State Manipur as such. Several concerned individuals and Zeliangrong organizations joined hands and have submitted a memorandum to the Government of India to eliminate the terms "Kacha Naga" and "Kabui" from the Scheduled tribe lists in Manipur. They demanded the government to replace it with an amalgamated unified term "Zeliangrong" indicating the unification of four cognate groups, namely the Zeme, Liangmai, Rongmei and Puimei. Unfortunately, some of the Puimei elders have expressed their discontentment since the prefix of their tribe is not included in the terminology of "Zeliangrong". However, it is unlikely that the Zeliangrong leaders would allow new alteration about the terminology. Myths, legends and the scanty literature of the Zeliangrong Nagas indicate that 'Makhel' in Senapati district, Manipur is the place of exodus. It is said that, their first village was called Makuilongdih but gradually, they abandoned their original village, and, they have migrated to different settlement areas. Makuilongdih village was deserted for several centuries but, by the end of twentieth century, interestingly some people have returned and re-settled in this village claiming it as the original village of their forefathers. For them, 'Makhel' is the significant place from which they disperse to various settlement areas. Once settled in a specific area, the village becomes permanent as Verrier Elwin affirms that they were not a 128
wandering tribe. However, the authenticity of the migration theory based on Makhel tradition demands serious consideration and critical analysis. They are scattered mostly in the states ofmanipur, Nagaland and Assam in North East India. According to Gangmumei Kamei (1997), Zeliangrong Nagas in general belong to the Tibeto-Burman of southern Mongoloid who for a considerable period lived in southwest China and migrated to northern Southeast Asia and northeast India around 1000 years before Christ. Kamei affirms that G.A. Grierson in his linguistic survey of India has grouped the Zeliangrong dialects and languages under the Naga Bodo sub-family. We do not have historical documents to show their migration or their origin. But, people have myths and legends in which they have firm belief that they are factual. Hence, the Zeliangrong sense of the past is a mixture of myths, songs and oral tradition. History to the ancient Zeliangrong people is the oral tradition handed down through generations. One of the binding forces among these cognate groups is the Zeliangrong Movement. This movement aims to unite the Zeme, Liangmai, Rongmai and Puimei, and also to get rid of inter-village and inter tribal differences. Besides, it aims to achieve political autonomy from the British rulers and free from the suppressive and exploitative foreign administration. The other objectives of the Zeliangrong movement include their religious identity and revival of their indigenous religion against the Christianity. They have come a long way since their tryst with British during the 19th century. The British divided the Zeliangrong area and trifurcated into three administrative units of Manipur, Nagaland and Assam. As a consequence, they became minority in their respective States. Therefore, they have struggled politically and socially for their separate homeland through nonviolence till 1990s under the leadership of Late Jadonang and Late Rani Gaidinliu. Ms. Gaidinliu was jailed for many years as she had fought against the British. As a tribute, India's first Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru gave her the title "Rani" in recognition of her valiant struggle against the British. Later, the 129
Government of India awarded her the Padma Bhushan. She is one of the prominent Indian freedom fighters from North East India. From 1925 onwards, she had started to struggle against the British rulers in order to free the Nagas from the suppressive and exploitative foreign administration. Mr. Jadonang who had revived and reformed the forefather's religion started the Zeliangrong Heraka Association covering Assam, Manipur and Nagaland by amalgamating the Zeme, Liangmei and Rongmei tribes mentored her to nurture this religion. Along with Mr. Jadonang and Rani Gaidinliu, N.C. Zeliang, President ofthe Heraka Association since its formation in 1974 led this religion till his death on 23 rd April, 2005. He was known as the lone Naga Hindu leader from North East India. N.C. Zeliang was Congress-I MLA from Taning constituency, but left the party and became the Founder President of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) Nagaland unit, National executive member of BJP and member of the CAPART. He had been closely associated with Vanvasi Kalyan Ashram for 25 (twenty five) years. He was also the founder-member of Janjati Vikas Samiti, Nagaland, and well known to the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) leaders, the Rama Krishan Mission, the Bharat Sevasharam Sangh and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). (8th May 2005, (http://www.organiser.org). Thus, the Zeliangrong Heraka Association is strongly associated with the RSS, VHP and the BJP. From April2005 onwards, Mr. Ramkui Wangbe Newme became the new President of the Association. The Zeliangrong movement could not sustain it's momentum in time. Some of the factors are attributed to the lack of committed leaderships; in-consistent lack of determination on the part of the leaders, and the persistent Naga movement which is struggling for Naga sovereignty and self-determination. Most importantly, the Zeliangrong identity is not recognized by the Government of India till today. Hence, a question of defining ethnic identity arises among the people of these cognate groups wherein they try to seek answers through their culture, history and common ancestors. They are constantly trying to assert their identity through their movement which has become synonymous with their ethnic identity. 130
Here, the question of identifying themselves within the Naga Movement becomes crucial because of the prevalence of the Zeliangrong Movement. There are differences of these two movements as the former strives to achieve freedom for the Zeliangrong Nagas whereas the later aims for Naga sovereignty and selfdetermination. The Zeliangrong Nagas are one of the minorities among the Naga tribes and to a certain extent; their movement dilutes the goals of the Naga movement. These political characteristics have partially diverted the State to neglect Tamenglong district. As a result, the Tamenglong district suffered considerably in the economic spheres. In such a context, NGOs become critical as it locates people in villages and involves in action at the grass roots level. Although Zeliangrong movement is now not active; its history enables us to locate some of the issues that local NGOs are highlighting today. For instance, culture based NGO like the Liangmai Naga Arts and Culture Association (LACA) tries to revive the rituals of the Zeliangrong indigenous religion during the celebration of Chaga festival and resist Christian invocation. Thus, it is observed that NGOs entangled in local politics and negotiate political interests. STATUS OF THE LIANGMAI NAGA WOMEN The Liangmai Naga women especially the newly married ones play a low profile role in the family. They tend to comply with the commands of the elders and perform various duties of the household religiously. Assertion of their rights is not encouraged and after marriage, they are curtailed from involving themselves in social activities to a great extent. After a lapse of many years when the parents of her husband passed away, the wife definitely becomes influential in the house and assists her husband in administration of her family. The role and status of the Liangmai woman is very crucial. Traditionally, the status of Liangmai Naga women is placed under men. But, the woman is no doubt perceived as having freedom and liberty in the home although the reality is different. There is considerable genderbased discrimination. 131
Although women make up 49% of society they are excluded from the village council and do not enjoy decision-making powers. Similar to other Naga tribes, the Liangmai Naga men have always been privileged to be decision-makers. The significant decisions of the family are made by the male members. In contrast, the village women do not have right to acquisition and securing of immovable property or choosing the kind of moveable property. A woman does not have power to decide the marriages of sons and daughters, their education, and cannot even claim her children after being divorced from her husband. More or less,.all issues fall under the domain of men in the society. Women in many villages have no access to health services but do most of the home and farm chores. Women share the responsibility of maintaining the family affairs and she is bogged down with many duties to execute. As the husband is engaged in several external activities in the village and social affairs, almost the whole responsibility of the family falls on the woman. Traditionally, the place of women is at the base since all the hierarchy is occupied by their men. By tradition, women are considered housewives while men are to be heads of the family. Certain significant changes have undergone owing to the influence of Christianity like the conventional marriage practices among the Liangmai Nagas have become strictly monogamous. The efforts of women NGOs like the Naga Women Union (NWU) and Naga Mothers Association (NMA) for the rights of Naga women have an impact on the Liangmai Naga women since 1990s. These NGOs have created awareness and encouraged Naga women to assert for their rights. Furthermore, with the growth of literacy rate, a few Liangmai women are employed in the modem jobs which enabled them to move out of their homes, expressed their views, exchanged their problems and evaluated their position vis-a-vis men in many areas of life. On the other hand, a few employed women also began to abstain from jhum cultivation because of their jobs and the awareness regarding consequences of jhum cultivation. Gradually, women became conscious of their position in society and they feel the urge to do something about it. 132
Change is a natural phenomenon and it is an inevitable part of our human existence. We are living in an era of liberalization, globalization, post-modernism, dramatic change and new age movement, in a world that is being transformed by complicated financial systems and technological revolutions into a huge global system. Amazing communications between different tribes, castes, races, ethnic groups, states and nations have been created, including promising unprecedented privileges for material prosperity in larger freedom, but also it is threatening to compound several existing challenges of those most vulnerable human societies. In such a complex scenario, it is essential to point out that the Liangmai Naga society in the past was a simple one confined mainly to the village in which women played their sub-ordinate role assigned to them completely in the political and religious affairs wherein they have manifested their simplicity and ignorance but the whole social set up has undergone a huge transition in the present society. A woman's life does not confine absolutely to villages alone, as the village society has transformed into a complex one. Women in today's Liangmai Naga society have started active participation in almost all fields of life to improve their social status. Social status of Liangmai Naga women is significantly related to their aspirations, opportunities for education, employment and improvement of standard of living. In order to discharge their responsibilities as citizens in a democratic nation, it is required that they should have the various opportunities to improve the quality of life. SHIFTING CULTIVATION IN THE DISTRICT Agriculture is the mainstay of the Zeliangrong people's economy. Shifting cultivation or slash and bum agriculture is popularly practiced among the people in the district. When shifting cultivation started, there was no population pressure. Hence, the cycle of cultivation rotates for almost twenty years and the soil revives its fertility easily. Now, the recuperation period has been cut down because of population on land and the cycle of cultivation is reduced from four to five years. 133
Since the area is covered as an Autonomous district, it is administered by the village councils under the Sixth Schedule. The Zeliangrong Nagas owned community land in their respective villages. All the village members including those landless people and women have the rights to practice slash and bum cultivation in the hill slopes adjoining their villages. The influence of modem technology and other challenges of this 21st century do not change the pattern of cultivation with the Zeliangrong people. N.Saha (1978) opines that magicoreligious beliefs are associated with agriculture in the tribal society and it is more so in case of shifting cultivation. He observes that most of the tribes have many ceremonies and festivals associated with jhum. He asserts that in most cases, ceremony ruins the household economy. For the Zeliangrong Nagas, agriculture is rooted with the custom, tradition, belief and social-economic life. Their lives revolve around jhum cultivation which manifests an integral ethos between culture and economy. Occasionally, they organized cultural and harvest festivals wherein rites and rituals are accompanied with the jhum cultivation. Traditional dances are also performed during such cultural and harvest festivals. A huge majority of the Zeliangrong Nagas in Tamenglong district have been converted to Christianity. Thus, with the advent of Christianity most of the traditional rites and rituals associated with slash and bum agriculture have ceased as the Church condemns such practices. Jhum starts with the selection of a plot on or near the hillside or jungle by the entire villagers. During the dry winter months from November to February, the forests on the selected patch are cut and left to dry. The dried debris is burnt in March and April before the onset of the monsoon. After a shower or two, the ash settles down and the field becomes ready for sowing. After raising the crop twice or thrice, cultivation is shifted to another place due to loss of soil fertility and the old one is left for years to revive. Das (1986) asserts that usually a hut is constructed near the fields to store the produce. It also serves as a recreation centre. These tribes 134
chat and sing at the end of the day's work. Their philosophy of living is a simple one to work for their daily bread and to relax completely when the chores are over. The main risk factors that are responsible for adaptation of jhum cultivation by the people are the geographical situation of the land, socio-economic milieu in which the family operates and land use policies with no suitable land to reclaim wet-rice-fields and to carry on terraced field or settled cultivation to continue on sustained basis. The jhumia families were continuing this method of cultivation unabated, as there is no alternative means of livelihood. It is essential to explore new avenues for jhumia families working in the jhum cultivation to save ecosystem and natural resources to restore ecological balance. D.N.Borthakur, (2002: 124-125) affirms that, "the system of farming was the only alternative to sustain the people in the physical environment that prevailed in the hill slopes and the scientific technology was also not known. The system was also not harmful initially when it started up to the time when the cycle of rotation was 10-15 years." However, things have changed nowadays. The soil fertility has not only declined but several species of wild life, plants, orchids and trees are lost during the process of slash and bum agriculture. And, there is some concern amongst the population that the practice of jhum cultivation is detrimental to the environment and inappropriate for their own livelihoods. In such a crucial situation, NGOs get involved in providing alternative means to jhum although it is still practiced in Tamenglong district over the years. One of the reasons for the prevalence of jhum is due to the lack of capital and the difficulties in establishing permanent fields for paddy and crops because most of the land is not a plain area unfavourable for terrace cultivation. Undoubtedly, slash and bum agriculture is also labour intensive and unsophisticated but the Zeliangrong Nagas do not want to change their traditional practice of cultivation even if they acquire modem technology. Besides, it is also a traditional way of life for a huge segment of the Zeliangrong Nagas. 135
HEALTH ISSUE IN THE DISTRICT Subsequent to the Naga-Kuki ethnic conflict in the 1990s which lasted for a decade, the district was hit by a series of outbreaks of epidemics such as cholera, typhoid and hepatitis. The local Primary Health Center (PHC) with limited nurses, doctors and medicines could not cater to the needs of the suffering patients in a satisfactory manner. The doctors are out of station most of the time of the year. Such a situation sharpens the social divisions and reinforces prejudices that the local community had initiated in response to earlier large-scale catastrophe of ethnic conflict. The prevailing condition prompted some NGOs to provide relief measures to those in need. Most importantly, the critical health problem of Manipur and Tamenglong district in particular is HIV I AIDS. The State has a porous international border with Myanmar through National highways NH-39 and NH-53. The NH-39 leads directly to the "Golden Triangle" where an estimated 70% of the global production of opium and the purest form of heroin (locally known as Number 4 or brown sugar) are manufactured. The "Golden Triangle" is a lush poppy field spread over three countries of South East Asia viz; Myanmar, Thailand and Laos which form a triangle. On my personal enquiry, it is found that the drug lord of the "Golden Triangle" Mr. Khun Shan is half-burmese and half-chinese by birth and he controls the production of heroin in this region. Some people in Manipur indulge in drug-trafficking and many unemployed youth become victims of drugs. As a result, HIV I AIDS is becoming number one killer in Manipur among the drug-addicts affecting their families. The commercial sex workers (CSW) are also responsible for spreading the virus. AIDS is a serious social disaster in the State. It also looms large in the hill areas like Tamenglong district as there is no facility to detect the cases of HIV amongst the tribal communities. Due to social stigma and discrimination, it seems difficult to disclose the HIV status.in the society. Hence, there is an imperative need for NGOs to initiate a holistic approach in dealing with HIV I AIDS in Manipur. 136
There is no doubt that both the State and the NGOs have been trying to eradicate this dreadful disease. To tackle the prevalence of this virus, the National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) has been networking with the Manipur State AIDS Control Society (MACS). Simultaneously, MACS is collaborating with hundreds of local NGOs to curb the spread of this disease in the State. The number of people with HIV I AIDS has been increasing. A few cases of HIVIAIDS are reported even from Tamenglong district in which this study has been conducted. One of the NGOs called Oriental Rural Development Organization (ORDO) in Tamei sub-division of Tamenglong district was provided funds by MACS in 2005 to implement Rapid Intervention and Care Project (RIAC), which is a long-term project on HIVIAIDS particularly among the injecting drug users (IDUs). However, it is too early to predict that this project is successful in curbing the spread of HIV I AIDS in the area. Out of 415 samples taken by Manipur State AIDS Control Society (MACS) in Tamenglong district in 2005 as shown in table 4:7, 46 people are tested HIV positive, which amounts to 0.29 %in the State. It is an alarming trend although the district has the lowest incidence in the State. More than 70% of the HIV positives are due to sharing of needles and syringes by Injecting Drug Users (IDUs). The first HIV positive case in Manipur was reported in February 1990 from blood samples collected in October 1989 among a group Injecting Drug Users (IDUs) who were in central Jail. Today, this virus has widespread in the society not only by IDUs but through commercial sex workers (CSW) and homosexuals. Despite efforts made by various NGOs working in the field of HIV I AIDS, most of the local communities have not been able to free itself from the unwarranted stigma and discrimination towards those affected people. 137
Table 4:7 District-wise distribution of HIV Positive Cases ( Sero-surveillance ): ~~li=~:~g~::~it:~~: :~:~:~:i~. District ' Sc.re~'h~4.:!.:;;~l>sid~es,;-;,_-~"-~/:":<~,:?~/~ii:!..:.-.: Imp hal 47859 9882 62.77 Thoubal 7387 1400 18.95 8.89 Bishnupur 4487 851 18.97 5.41 Churachandpur 3383 1124 33.22 7.14 Ukhrul 1909 809 42.38 5.14 Senapati 2587 644 24.89 4.09 Tamenglong 415 46 11.08 0.29 Chan del 1793 627 34.97 3.98 97.71 2.29 [Source: Manipur Aids Control Society (MACS), Imphal, 2005]. The HIV I AIDS scenario in Manipur is mainly due to the fact that infection has spread from the high-risk group (IDUs) to the general population. The infection has also spread to the sexual partners of the IDU s affecting women and children. It is observed that there is an increased infection of HIV I AIDS among the youths due to sharing of needles and syringes amongst themselves. Thus, many affected people are of the younger generation. Manipur is one of the six HIV I AIDS high prevalent States in India. This State accounts for more than 8% of India's total HIV cases. Hence, the State is heading towards a dangerous future. 138
Table 4:8 Sentinel Surveillance Report July to September, 2004 IDUs 21% Pregnant women 1.66% STD cases 7.2% csw 18.75% Sources: (ibid) Table 4:9 The tables below reveal the intense situation ofhiv/aids in the Sources: (ibid) Here, I have emphasized about HIV I AIDS because it has become a critical health concern in Tamenglong district. Moreover, some of the NGOs which I have studied have attempted to combat HIVIAIDS. For instance, when I visited Tamei, I have met HIV/AIDS infected patient namely Mr. Robin Niumai who belongs to the Liangmai Naga tribe and who is a staff of the ORDO, said "I have been taking Antiretroviral drug (ART) provided by the Regional Institute of Medical Sciences (RIMS), Imphal for the past few years under the guidance of the ORDO, Tamei and my health has improved." Other HIV I AIDS patients in Tamei, Tamenglong district have also been taking the Anti-retroviral drug (ART) provided by the Regional Institute of Medical Sciences (RIMS), Imphal. In fact, Manipur has the highest rate of HIV positive patients in North East India besides Nagaland. Tamenglong district has the lowest rate at the State level. NGOs have been trying to prevent HIV I AIDS by creating awareness, conducting training camps, distributing medicines, condoms, nutritions 139
and providing psychological counseling to the HIV I AIDS patients and their families free of cost. SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF TAMEI SUB-DIVISION The mainstay of the people at Tamei sub-division is agriculture. They practice slash and bum or jhum cultivation as stated earlier. In addition to poverty, systematic and scientific methods of agricultural practices are not used in the area. They take up agricultural activities with primitive technology, and little investment without modem irrigation facilities and infrastructure that ultimately led to yield lesser productivity which is not sufficient for some households to survive. Those households who live below poverty line try to harmonize their prerequisite for survival from forest products. The Government of Manipur records that several tribal welfare schemes have been initiated. Another important fact is that, due to unemployment and lack of income opportunities, majority of the people live below the poverty line. The problem of unemployment has a serious repercussion as many youth live in discontentment. So far, government claimed that various schemes have been implemented for economic growth but it is not visible to a large extent. It is important to note that several programmes and schemes, which have been initiated as per records by the government, exist only in paper. As such, there have been no impressive successes achieved by the government. There is no progress made to the extent to assess the impact of the programmes implemented by the government. Moreover, against the popular perception, lack of development in the past decades was not only because of shortage of funds. Even if sufficient resources were provided to Tamei sub-division, it is found that a substantial portion of these vast funds earmarked for various schemes often did not reach at their destination. It is obvious to say that till date, no serious attempt has been made to take into accounf the sentiments, habits, practices, 140
or the traditions of the Liangmai tribal community of the Tamei sub-division while formulating policies. There is a weekly market in Tamei bazaar wherein women farmers from the neighboring villages sell their produces directly. The weekly market is predominantly used and managed by women of the surrounding villages. However, a facility for these women farmers to commercialize their produces on daily basis to receive higher incomes and profits are not created. Vehicles rarely ply on the village roads to transport commodities. Hence, women farmers are compelled to carry their products on shoulders or backs in a traditional basket and walk for several miles on foot to reach their common weekly market place. The area remains unvisited, unexplored, unaddressed and undeveloped. Nothing concrete was done for the improvement of the socio economic conditions of the local ethnic community under the said local oligarchy. To a certain extent, the State has lost its vision for the poor. They are interested in strengthening its vote banks only. Such is an unfortunate scene in the area. The government has largely failed to achieve their goal of improving the condition of the poor at Tamei sub-division because the poor could not participate effectively or get benefit substantially from the government-sponsored programmes. These poor and needy people mostly live in risk are not aware of their rights and other issues. Therefore, capacity building and creating awareness becomes important functions of the local NGOs. The NGOs make these poor people become aware of their human rights and wretched living conditions which can be improved. Awareness campaigns have been launched by the NGOs through demonstrations, resource materials, distribution of pamphlets, debates, meetings and speeches in villages and in other public places, schools and churches. TOURISM POTENTIAL IN THE DISTRICT Tamenglong is a small district stretching along the western fringe of Manipur bordering Nagaland and Assam. It is a gem in the brilliant necklace of 141
Manipur. Though very tiny, less explored and less visited, the district has great charm as well as a long tradition and history of the land and the people. The district has picturesque hills; flora and fauna, the colourful variety of its ethnic life and culture invite the tourists. Tamenglong district is a land of lovely spots. The tourists especially the foreigners and the Indians who have been settled abroad for several generations and who do not have Indian passport cannot enter this district without a special visa from the Government oflndia (GOI). The district can vie with any state or territory oflndia as a tourist's attraction. Notable spots of tourists' attraction are: > Tharon cave > Buning valley (Inpiulong valley) > Old Konphung, a prairie land > Barak waterfall > Zailat lake Unfortunately, most of the tourist spots are inaccessible. One of the most ancient and popular Tharon cave is located 27 kms away from the district Head Quarters. Archeologists conducted an excavation work at the cave and discovered that it has close resemblance with Hobinian culture ofnorth Vietnam. On the other hand, Barak River is a very beautiful spot nestled in the deep cool forest and along this river, there are seven waterfalls. Transport as well as a communication bottleneck is the main irritant to enrich the tourist industry in this district. Endowed with nature's varied gifts, the scenic Buning valley, otherwise known as Inpiulong valley has its prestine state and it is situated at the imposing height of 1410 meters above sea level. The valley has a charming landscape and it has its sheer enchantment. The valley is also blessed with ground orchids and beautiful wild lillies. There is a waterfall appealing for attention on the way to Buning valley, and a beautiful stream called Agaki is gently running in the heart of the Buning valley similar to a river on the deserted city of Hiroshima of Japan. Such a stream, which runs gently in the dale, had added another bonus of attraction. 142
Besides, there are many medicinal plants of immense value including pitcher plants and ginseng and other endemic species which remain unexplored. Bequeathed with natural prairie, elegant streams, lakes, a deep gorge, a land of the eternal zephyrs, old Konphung village in Tamei sub-division situated on the peak at 1380 meters above sea level which is fondly described as a veritable paradise, all-embracing greenness of prairie is a point of attraction to the tourists especially the foreigners. In 1924, a British officer paid a visit to this village and when first set his eye on the prairie and peak, named it as "Little Scotland". Prairie of gently plain and sloping grasslands interspersed between hill tops, sparkling natural lakes and streams, the early morning mist revealing just enough to make the sight seems almost ethereal: a romantic pretty picture. This village has the biggest prairie in North East India covering an area of 200 hectares. Thus, old Konphung is a village of surpassing scenic beauty. Natural lakes and mountain lakes, rising peaks, billowing meadows and rushing brooks combine to offer a rich panorama. ISOLATION OF THE ZELIANGRONG PEOPLE Even after six decades of India's independence, the people of Manipur particularly the Tamenglong district, they felt that they are marginalized. The isolation of the Zeliangrong Naga in general and Liangmai Nagas in particular leads them to believe that they are victims deprived of the benefits of development. Even the educational institutions are neglected by the government for a long period. The institutions have been functioning in this district without adequate paraphernalia such as inadequate building structure, furniture,equipments, requisite atmosphere and above all, shortage of teachers. No pragmatic measures are contemplated to transform the Zeliangrong people at par with other communities in the field of education, health and overall development. The economist Gunnar Myrdal ( 1968) propounded the concept of 'vicious circle of poverty'. According to this theory, poverty is both the cause and effect of poverty. Perhaps, this theory is applicable to the people in this district as 143