323 30 B.C.E.
Sparta defeated Athens in 404 B.C.E., ending the Peloponnesian Wars, and establishing a government later known as the Thirty Tyrants. Sparta and Thebes rivaled for control over the other city states during the next sixty years. Macedonia s rise under Philip II (382-336 B.C.E.) changed the course of Greek history after Philip s men conquered Greece around 338 B.C.E. Philip died two years later under suspicious circumstances which suggest an assassination plot by his son Alexander. Philip s role in unifying Macedonia and Greece set the stage for an intercontinental empire to emerge. Alexander (356-323 B.C.E.) is often considered among the greatest military leaders in history. Under his direction, Macedonian and Greek soldiers would defeat the Persians, Mesopotamians, Egyptians, Medians, Parthians, and Bactrians. His empire spanned Macedonia to the Indus River, joining Europe, Africa and Asia for the first time in history. Alexander relied heavily on the hoplite phalanx formation. Soldiers (hoplites) would interlock their shields while marching forward. They each carried 7-9 foot spears. Hoplites worked as a unit to protect themselves from all sides. Mounted soldiers would not be able to break their ranks easily. Alexander did not need to have numeric advantages because their shallow formation would lure the enemy into the center of the group and then engulf the enemy from all sides. Once surrounded, Alexander s enemies often succumbed due to mass confusion and panic. Alexander s empire was divided among his four top generals: 1. Ptolemaic in Egypt and the Near East defeated by Rome 30 B.C.E. 2. Seleucids in Turkey, Iraq, and Persia annexed by Rome in 64 B.C.E. 3. Antigonids in Greece and Macedonia defeated by Rome in 168 B.C.E. 4. Attalids in Pergamum (Western Turkey) conceded to Rome in 133 B.C.E.
The Greek culture that blended with the local cultures is called Hellenistic. It was the culture of the elite populations in cities. Alexander s influence impacted the literate, land holding, socially mobile classes in these regions. It was not nearly as influential among the poor and in village populations. Greek culture changed in Hellenism from a less individualistic one to a more unified, collective mentality. Eastern religions like Zoroastrianism, Hinduism and Babylonian religions became more popular to Greek peoples. Philosophy also expanded and contemplated cosmological theories of reality. Greek was the language of trade and international politics. Classical Greek literature became the standard curriculum for education. Young people were faced with a tough decision to adopt Hellenistic ways of life or to maintain their traditional cultures. Education and opportunity often meant living very differently from one s upbringing and family of origin. Hellenistic culture produced some of the great achievements: 300 B.C.E. school of medicine started Aristarchus of Samos theorized the Earth revolved around the Sun Archimedes of Syracuse (renowned Hellenistic architect) calculated pi 290 B.C.E. Theophrastus writes his History of Plants 280 B.C.E. lighthouse at Pharos is the tallest building in the world (approx. 400 feet) 260 B.C.E. Archimedes invents the pulley, the lever, basic calculus, and the law of specific gravity 230 B.C.E. Eratosthenes of Cyrene calculates the circumference of the Earth 220 B.C.E. Herophilus of Alexandria discovers human nervous system and the theory of blood circulation through arteries 150 B.C.E. Hipparchus of Nicea invents trigonometry and catalogs 805 stars 140 B.C.E. solar eclipses predicted, calendar organized into 4 year cycles
Hellenistic philosophy tended to emphasize individual philosophical pursuits above civic duties when compared to Classical Greek philosophy. Skepticism (read Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) was a school of thought founded by Pyhrro (ca. 365-275 B.C.E.) (left). Timon (ca. 325-235 B.C.E.) was Pyhrro s student who recorded his teachings. Pyhrro denied knowledge completely. The nature of things is indeterminable. Skepticism is similar to the Sophist school in classical Greece. The skeptical goal was to suspend judgment. The basic claim is that all criteria for judgments are speculative or uncertain. Happiness comes from the freedom to say, I don t know and to be content. Cynicism (read Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) was another school of thought founded by Diogenes of Sinope (ca. 404 323 BCE) (right). This was a much harder path to follow. Diogenes was known for public displays of odd behavior. He would intentionally do things considered anti-social and offensive to make his points. The Cynical school emphasized simplicity and withdrawal from society. Cynics were comfortable with open bodily functions and considered themselves citizens of the world which amounted to wandering vagrants. Stoics refined this idea in a more positive direction than the cynical approach to avoid political participation and mock social conventions.
Zeno from Citium (ca. 340-260 B.C.E.) founded this school. Stoicism emphasized reason and esteemed others equally for their rational capabilities. Stoics saw God a cosmic reason. Human souls were the divine spark innate in each person as a fragment of the greater whole. These ideas are akin to Hinduism. Stoics valued their place as citizens in the world. Government was participatory and a result of human cooperation. One s individual will should be aligned with the natural will (God or the world Spirit). Stoics tolerated other philosophies since they are part of the world Spirit or God. Hellenism helped spread Stoicism since both were more inclusive and cosmopolitan. Happiness stems from self-sufficiency. Often people think of Stoicism as unemotional. Detachment from emotions leads to contentment. This is also similar to Buddhism in its renunciation of personal attachment for the sake of inner peace. Bad things don t upset Stoics. Good things are appreciated but not an end in themselves. God is benevolent and gives good things to people, but this is not the point of life. One must pursue of basic necessities, knowledge and happiness in a balanced manner. Life transcends mere things, information or pleasure. Stoics valued duty at all costs. Upon death, Stoics believed one s soul absorbed into the ultimate reason. One s soul was a gift from God to be used in life for reasonable ends. Later Stoicism emphasized the immortality of the soul, but it was not clearly defined. Stoicism highly influenced Roman intellectuals and shaped the mind of Roman soldiers. Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180 C.E.) wrote his Meditations, which is one of the great works influenced by Stoic ideals. (see Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
Epicurus (341-270 B.C.E.) founded this school. Gods and immortality were seen as the source of human problems. Epicureans were atomistic. Humans are comprised of matter and space. Their philosophy combined Democritus atomism and Anaximander s aperion. People determined their own morality in Epicureanism. Pursue pleasure, avoid pain. Happiness was the ultimate aim in life. Like Stoics, self-indulgence was not the standard for Epicureans. Pursuit of pleasure focused upon the limitation of vain desires. Life was a balancing act. Aristotle s Golden Mean encapsulates their ultimate aim. Have enough to be content, but not too much to be glutted. Epicureans believed 3 primary desires were worth pursuing: 1. for life food, drink and shelter 2. for ease a place to rest 3. for happiness friendship Epicureans valued a simplistic lifestyle. They were materialistic and utilitarian. They did not emphasize a soul or personal immortality. At death, one s body decomposed. There was no life after death. Epicureans felt government helped minimize pain. Order allowed for greater pleasure for the whole society. Humans are self-interested. Politics took a more selfish direction in Epicureanism. One pursues politics to make alliances that are able to keep her or him from harm. (see Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
After the expansion of Greek culture by Alexander the Great, the Hellenistic depictions on the Altar of Zeus 181-159 B.C.E. demonstrate an intensified presentation compared to the Classical Period. The entire Altar was 300 feet and the friezes sat closer to eye level flanking the central stairways. The war between the gods and the giants is depicted similar to the Parthenon, but the depth of the sculptures and heightened movement illustrates an advancement from the Classical form. The detail of Athena and Alkyoneus provides a clear example of this increased drama and movement.
Nike of Samothrace ca. 190 B.C.E. depicts the sensous body of the goddess of victory. The thin fabric that drapes her form is typical of Hellenistic sculptures. Notice how her torso is proportioned similar to the Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles. Apollo Belvedere aka Pythian Apollo marble copy of late 4 th c. B.C.E. original. The subject possibly captures Apollo slaying the Python at Delphi. This less idealized form compared to High Classical Greek statues is seen in the softer, effeminate features. This Apollo was rediscovered in Italy in late 1400s. Renaissance sculptors considered it the most beautiful Greek statue.
Laocoön and His Sons is one of the greatest Hellenistic sculptures which captures the major goals of movement, drama and emotional impact in a single subject. The Altar of Zeus contains similar tension on a small scale, but this is a sculpture in the round that is executed perfectly. In Sophocles' account, Laocoön was a priest of Apollo who was suspicious of the Trojan Horse and tried to warn the Trojans to burn it. He defiled Apollo by having sexual relations with his wife, which was considered forbidden in his position. Apollo sends two sea serpents to attack him and his sons. Virgil considers his curse differently. He links Laocoön with Poseidon who is angry at him for trying to foil the plan of the Trojan Horse concocted by Odysseus. Laocoön says in Virgil s account, Do not trust the horse, Trojans. Whatever it is I fear the Greeks even bearing gifts. (Aeneid II, 49) This depiction is highly idealized and overly dramatic. The angst of the father and the terror of his sons is truly captivating. The muscular detail on all three figures is only seen in the works of Michelangelo during the Renaissance and in the Baroque sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini over 1500 years later.