Conservation vs. Preservation: A Historical Overview of Early Environmentalism and the Controversy Surrounding Hetch-Hetchy Valley STS 5205 Brittany Oliver December 12, 2011
2 Abstract This essay addresses the controversy over Yosemite s Hetch Hetchy Valley in the early 1900s. This controversy was critical in the movement towards modern environmentalism and the restriction of land use in our natural parks. The debate over the use of Hetch Hetchy Valley s main water source was one of the first environmental debates and the results of this controversy have continued to impact policy and views of the environment today. In the early 1900s the United States population was steadily increasing and it was a prosperous time for many Americans. As a result, cities including San Francisco started to demand more and more natural resources. This demand for water in San Francisco led many to consider damming the Tuolumne River which flowed right through Yosemite s Hetch Hetchy Valley. Not only did this spark controversy over the dam in Yosemite, but it also sparked a national debate over the ideology of conservation and preservation of land. At the forefront of this debate were naturalist John Muir and chief forester Gifford Pinchot. Overall, this essay will address the main components of the debates, the chief people involved, and the lasting impact the results of this debate have had on environmental policies today. Introduction Situated within the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains sits an area of land bursting with biodiversity, pristine waterfalls and streams, stunning granite cliffs, and Giant Sequoia groves. This spectacular valley, formed through uplift, erosion, and glacial processes, came to be known as Yosemite (Righter, 2005, p.13). As described by naturalist John Muir, Yosemite, specifically the Hetch Hetchy Valley could be depicted as: A grand landscape garden, one of Nature s rarest and most precious mountain mansions. As in Yosemite, the sublime rocks of its walls seem to the nature lover to glow
3 with life, whether leaning back in repose or standing erect in thoughtful attitudes giving welcome to storms and calms alike. And how softly these mountain rocks are adorned, and how fine and reassuring the company they keep-their brows in the sky, their feet set in groves and gay emerald meadows, a thousand flowers leaning confidently against their adamantine bosses (Magoc, 2006, p.134). So who could imagine that this area that Muir describes so eloquently could be the battleground for one of the largest environmental conflicts in United States history? The Battle for Hetch Hetchy Established in 1890, Yosemite National Park became home to some of the United States most pristine land. The national park encompassed nearly 762,000 acres of forests, meadows, fields, valleys and dense networks of creeks and lakes (Righter, 2005, p.xxiii). It was undeniable that the land was teeming with natural resources ready for human consumption. Long before the land was considered to be part of Yosemite National Park the area was used by a variety of peoples for a variety of reasons. Both the Central Miwok and Paiute Indian tribes used the land for agricultural purposes. By setting fire to the land these tribes were able to grow certain crop and tree species, but this continual slash and burn practice permanently altered the original landscape allowing the formation of fields and meadows. Other permanent altercations to the landscape occurred through mining, logging, and sheepherding by European Americans. However, the land was not always used by humans for consumptive purposes. Many writers and artists flocked to Yosemite for inspiration and solitude (Righter, 2005, p.11). This difference in ideology over land use dates back to the origins of Yosemite, but by 1900 the conflict over the land in Yosemite National Park would explode and become the focal point to a national debate over land use rights (Righter, 2005, p.4).
4 By the late 19 th century the population in the United States was booming and cities were becoming larger, more diverse hubs for both business and politics. In order to account for the growing population, cities, including San Francisco demanded an increasingly amount of natural resources. Due to its venerable, arid location, San Francisco had to account for the city s growing population and their permanent lack of available freshwater. As a result of the population surge and lack of water, San Francisco s government officials, including Mayor James Phelan, started the search for water in the arid West (Righter, 2005, p.29). By 1891 the search for water led United States Geological Survey surveyor, John Henry Quinton to the pristine Hetch Hetchy Valley situated within Yosemite National Park (Righter, 2005, p. 49). Some 150 miles East of San Francisco, the Hetch Hetchy Valley held the solution to San Francisco s water problem and the solution was simple; dam the Tuolumne River (Magoc, 2006, p. 129). The location was perfect for a dam and the reasons why are best described by Holway Jones, author of John Muir and the Sierra Club: The Battle for Yosemite (1965), when he says: Hetch Hetchy was a natural reservoir site. It was remote. I had a virtually level floor with a minimum of tree cover at its lower end. Most important, it had a narrow entrance where the granite walls rose perpendicularly for several hundred feet. A more suitable storage basin could scarcely be found anywhere in the Sierra, or so the city advocates believed. (p.87) As described in the quote by Jones (1965) one can understand why the area was so sought after. It was clear that the geologic structure of the valley was ideal for the creation of a dam and a reservoir. However, there was one problem; the Tuolumne River was located in Yosemite National Park (Magoc, 2006, p. 129).
5 Not to be deterred, the city officials continued to send surveyors, prospectors, and engineers into the Sierra Nevada Mountains to search for alternative water sources outside of the Hetch Hetchy Valley and Yosemite National Park. The search proved successful and other damming sites were proposed to the city officials. However, the majestic nature of the valley called to Mayor Phelan and by 1901 it was decided that damming the Tuolumne River was the best option for San Francisco (Righter, 2005, p.52). At the time the projected cost for building the dam was estimated at $39,531,000, an astronomical cost to bring one city and its surrounding areas more water than they would know what to do with (Jones, 1965, p.89). Future mayor Edward Taylor described the infatuation with the Hetch Hetchy Valley best when he said the site completely hypnotize[d] every civil engineer that sees it, and to render him forever incapable of a rational consideration of the larger problem of public policy relating to it (Righter, 2005, p. 52). With what seemed no regard for the financial constraints and political consequences of building a dam in the Hetch Hetchy Valley the fight for control over the land would soon begin (Righter, 2005, p.52). Nearly ten years after San Francisco s search for water started, the Right-of -Way Act of 1901 was sent to Congress and San Francisco was ready to use political action to gain access to Hetch Hetchy Valley and the Tuolumne River (Righter, 2005, p.52). The Right-of-Way Act of 1901, put into action by California Representative Marion DeVries, if passed would open the way to municipal use of Yosemite s Hetch Hetchy (Jones, 1965, p.90). Only a year after the Right-of-Way Act was put into motion it passed and proponents for the dam were ready take legal action for the acquisition of water rights in the Hetch Hetchy Valley (Righter, 2005, p.53). However, taking action did not come without its challenges.
6 By taking legal action to gain control of Hetch Hetchy s water sources the city was in essence driving a deep wedge into the integrity of the national park system (Righter, 2005, p.4). This did not sit right with many individuals including Secretary of the Interior E.A. Hitchcock and naturalist John Muir. In January of 1903, Hitchcock denied San Francisco s first attempt to gain control over Hetch Hetchy s water rights. He also denied the city s appeal on the foundation that a dam would be a violation of Yosemite National Park under the Yosemite National Park Act of 1890 (Jones, 1965, p.91). In a letter to President Theodore Roosevelt, Hitchcock expressed his view of protecting Yosemite when he said: If natural scenic attractions of the grade and character of Lake Eleanor and Hetch Hetchy Valley are not of the class which the law commands the Secretary to preserve and retain in their natural condition, it would seem difficult to find any in the Park that are unless it is to be the Yosemite Valley itself. (Righter, 2005, p.54) From the above quotation it is clear that Hitchcock believed that building a dam would be a complete violation of the park s constitution and by allowing for such action in the Hetch Hetchy Valley would be equivalent to damming the infamous Yosemite Valley (Righter, 2005, p.54). Much like Hitchcock, Muir, one of the leading advocates for the preservation of Yosemite National Park, was against the damming of Hetch Hetchy from the very beginning. Around the same time San Francisco government officials began searching for a more substantial water source for the city, John Muir was hard at work organizing the Sierra Club. The Sierra Club, whose origins were based on two major events, one being the discovery of Yosemite, the other the pilgrimage of a man who was to devote himself to scientific exploration and a crusading career in natural preservation (Jones, 1965, p.5) pledged to be a guardian for Yosemite (Jones, 1965, p.11). To John Muir the Hetch Hetchy Valley was far from being a
7 plain, common, rock-bound meadow, as many who have not seen it seem to suppose, is a grand landscape garden, one of Nature s rarest and most precious mountain temples (John Muir s Hetch Hetchy Valley ). Muir, like many others, believed that Yosemite Valley was worth protecting at all costs. It was a place that held more value than simply a reservoir and supplier of water to one city. So only a few short years after the Sierra Club was founded the club was ready to take action against San Francisco and the damming of Hetch Hetchy (Jones, 1965, p.11). Between the years of 1902 and 1906 both James Phelan and the city of San Francisco were hard at work organizing and gaining support for control over Hetch Hetchy and the Tuolumne River. The group continued to push their application to Secretary Hitchcock, who continued to decline their application. Not discouraged, Phelan and his team worked hard to find support elsewhere. His efforts paid off for support came from none other than President Roosevelt and chief forester Gifford Pinchot (Jones, 1965, p.92). These two men having such power and influence gave the city of San Francisco a certain advantage. In a letter to William Colby, a staunch support for the preservation of Hetchy Hetchy, Gifford Pinchot writes about his desire to preserve Hetch Hetchy in its unique beauty, but also the importance of supplying water to San Francisco. This is Pinchot s recommendation: From what I can gather, it will be not less than 50 years before any supply further than that which can be derived from Lake Eleanor is required, and perhaps twice as long. In the meantime, it would be unwise to allow rights to accrue which would eventually prevent the use of the other of other reservoir sites by the city, or make that use possible only after extremely expensive condemnation proceedings. (Jones, 1965, p.93) In this quote Pinchot expresses his level headedness and his understanding about what was going to do the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people (Righter, 2005, p.69).
8 At a pivotal point in the Hetch Hetchy controversy, when the battle between John Muir, the Sierra Club, and the city of San Francisco continued to be waged disaster struck the morning of April 18, 1906. The strong earthquake that shook San Francisco for nearly 30 seconds caused unimaginable devastation. The city s infrastructure was completely demolished; buildings, power lines, gas lines and water mains were in shambles. But the worst was far from over and within hours four square miles of the city were in flames. Due to lack of water and the ensuing fact that the earthquake had demolished most of the water lines running into the city, San Francisco burned for four days (Righter, 2005, p.58). Not only did the water main breaks leave the city charred and in ashes, but typhoid outbreaks swept through the city due to unsafe drinking water and a lack of available freshwater (Magoc, 2006, p. 129). In the aftermath of both the earthquake and fire, everyone was looking for answers. While no one could be blamed for the earthquake, the fire was a different story. The city s officials, firefighters, and citizens all knew that the fire could have been contained had the city had a more prevalent supply of water (Righter, 2005, p.58-59). Although the devastation from the earthquake and fire left many of the citizens of San Francisco shaken and homeless, this disaster came at a critical time for advocates of the damming of the Tuolumne River (Magoc, 2006, p.129-130). As sympathy for the city of San Francisco mounted and the political support continued to sway in favor of granting San Francisco control over Hetch Hetchy things started to happen quickly for the city. After the fire and earthquake reeked havoc on the city, the push for a municipal water system was at an all time high (Righter, 2005, p.60). Shortly after the revival in the push for Hetch Hetchy there were some critical political changes that ensued. The first, and most critical, was the resignation of Secretary Hitchcock, whose continual refusal was one of the
9 only deterring factors left in the push towards control of the valley. The second critical political change came when James Garfield took over Hitchcock s position as Secretary of the Interior. With James Garfield as Secretary of the Interior, San Francisco pushed even harder (Jones, 1965, p.93). However this was not without a counter act from John Muir and the Sierra Club (Righter, 2005, p.63). The Sierra Club took its first formal action against Phelan and San Francisco on August 30, 1907, when the board passed a lengthy resolution opposing the use of Hetch Hetchy as a reservoir site (Righter, 2005, p.63). In this resolution against damming Hetch Hetchy several key arguments of the Sierra Club were stressed. One of the first arguments was that the land should be preserved due to its natural beauty. Some might think this was a weak argument, but the preservation of natural lands is one of the missions of the Sierra Club and the national parks. The second key argument was that by preserving the land there was evident tourist potential once a proper road was build and that there could be the potential for considerable profits. The third argument was the fact that the building of a dam was still a violation of the Yosemite National Park Act and the final argument alluded to the fact that San Francisco could still find a water source somewhere else. While this resolution held a lot of weight, it would essentially not be enough to stop San Francisco from gaining control over Hetch Hetchy (Righter, 2005, p.63-65). Only a few months after James Garfield was inaugurated he was heavily involved with the controversies surrounding the Hetch Hetchy Valley. In 1907, Garfield traveled to San Francisco to meet with the city s officials. The results of the meeting were great for San Francisco because Garfield decided that a rehearing of the city s application for control over Hetch Hetchy was in order. By May 11, 1908, with support from Roosevelt and Pinchot, Garfield finally approved the bill which would grant San Francisco power over Hetch Hetchy
10 (Jones, 1965, p.93). By this point John Muir and the Sierra Club s fight against the proposed dam was nearing an end. Within the next few years things continued to sway in favor of San Francisco. Although the Sierra Club and Muir continued to put up a fight the efforts were not rewarded and by 1913 the battle for Hetch Hetchy was culminating to an unfortunate end. With the passage of the Raker Bill in 1913, control for Hetch Hetchy was lost to San Francisco (Merchant, 2002, p.136). After the loss, Muir in a letter to a close friend is quoted: As to the loss of the Sierra Park Valley it s hard to bear. The destruction of the charming groves and gardens, the finest in all California, goes to my heart. But in spite of Satan & Co. some sort of compensation must surely come out of this damn-damdamnation. (Jones, 1965, p.168) John Muir died the next year, 1914, on Christmas Eve. It is noted that John Muir once said that if he were to lose Hetch Hetchy he would surely die. It is easy to believe that a man who loved Yosemite with so much passion would die of heartbreak in knowing it was only a matter of time before this valley would be altered forever (Jones, 1965, p.168). Construction of the O Shaughnessy Dam began in 1915 (Merchant, 2002, p.136). The actual construction of the dam took eight years to complete and an estimated 100 million dollars to finance. Nearly 19 years later, on October 28, 1934, thousands of San Franciscans celebrated the dedication of the O Shaughnessy Dam and the bountiful supply of water to their city (Righter, 2005, p.162-163). The dam permanently altered the landscape and character of the Hetch Hetchy Valley and the controversy surrounding the valley would set the precedent for future environmental debates.
11 (a). Hetch Hetchy Valley, 1913 (a). Hetch Hetchy Valley, 1913 These two pictures compare what the Hetch Hetchy Valley looked like before the construction of the O Shaughnessy Dam (a) and what the valley looked like after the construction on the dam (b). As you can see the dam changed the landscape considerably and took away much of the character away from the Valley (Sierra Nevada Galleries). Conservation vs. Preservation In terms of the battle for control over the water rights to the Hetch Hetchy Valley, it could be said that it was an epic fight between James Phelan and John Muir (Righter, 2005, p.4). These two individuals who felt extremely passionate about what they were fighting for would stop at nothing to share their ideas and gain support from others. Both Phelan and Muir held onto ideologies that were immensely different, as it showed in what they were fighting for. While one man fought for water rights for a city in need, the other fought for the protection of Yosemite s natural beauty. While this fight and differing ideologies was significant, there was another differing in ideologies that was revealed in the midst of the Hetch Hetchy Valley controversy (Righter, 2005). (b). O Shaughnessy Dam, near completion, 1923 Underlying the Hetch Hetchy controversy was the difference in ideology surrounding land use, specifically United States natural and protected lands. This differing in ideologies came in the form of conservationists and preservationists. The branching in ideology came at a critical
12 time in United States history because at the turn of the 20 th century an increasingly large number of everyday citizens were becoming interested in the natural world and concerned with its protection (Magoc, 2006, p.127). In a unique combination of piqued interest in nature by the national public and the events of the Hetch Hetchy controversy, the emergence of two different ideologies in land use was gathering national attention. The two individuals gaining this national attention were both men who played critical roles in the battle that played out in Yosemite National Park. Once again at the forefront of a clash in ideologies was John Muir, this time, however, Gifford Pinchot was on the other side engaging the nation in a debate over land use. Muir, who was a stanch preservationist, opposed many of the ideals of Pinchot, a conservationist. In many respects both conservationists and preservationists are similar. For example, the overall goal of both ideologies is the protection of nature, but there are several key aspects that separate them into distinct classes (Merchant, 2002). Preservationists, whose origins and ideals are derivative of the European romanticism period of the 18 th century, were led by artists and writers. Some of these influential individuals included William Cullen Bryant, Henry David Thoreau, Thomas Cole and George Caitlin. Through their skills as artists and writers, these individuals were able to portray nature in a way that was very idyllic and picturesque to the American public. Many Americans found a source of both national pride and refuge from the harrying business of mastering the continent (Magoc, 2006, p. 128), through viewing and reading the work of these artists. This was critical because at one point in United States history it was thought by the American public that seeing the destruction of land was a sign of progress. However, with the preservation movement everyday people really started to think about what we as a nation were doing to the land and our natural
13 resources all in the name of manifest destiny. The public was starting to get a sense that there were heavy consequences for having complete dominion over the land and natural resources. The price being, the complete destruction of exceptionally beautiful and unique landscapes throughout the United States (Merchant, 2002, p.132-133). Preservationists would argue that land should be protected so that people in the future can enjoy the unique landscapes that have graced our nation (Righter, 2005). On the other hand, the ideology and goals of the conservationists are to carefully manage the use of natural resources so as to not impair the capacity of future generations of Americans to similarly prosper (Magoc, 2006, p.128). Much like that of the preservation movement, the conservation movement stemmed primarily from the destruction of the nation s forest cover. When the conservation movement began in the mid 1800s it was led by George Perkins Marsh. Marsh, who is considered to be one of the earliest advocated for the wise use of land, warned that American lands might suffer the fate of the ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean world, where once abundant forests had turned to denuded slopes and eroded soils (Merchant, 2002, p.127) if America does not change the way it views and protects land. In an 1864 publication of Man and Nature, Marsh wrote about man and the growing concern over the waste of our precious natural resources. He states man has too long forgotten that the earth was given to him for usufruct alone, not for consumption, still less for prolific waste man is everywhere a disturbing agent. Wherever he plants his foot, the harmonies of nature are turned to discords (Merchant, 2002, p. 127). Marsh knew that using our natural resources in a wise fashion was critical for the survival of our population. By 1890, several years before the Hetchy Hetchy debate, Marsh passed away, but many of his ideas and philosophies were kept alive by many individuals, including Gifford Pinchot (Merchant, 2002).
14 Both John Muir and Gifford Pinchot were adamant about sharing their conservation and preservation ideologies to the American people, especially during the time of the Hetch Hetchy controversy. Both wrote many publications in magazines and newspapers trying to gain support surrounding how the land should be used. Through the use of two quotes by Muir and Pinchot it is relatively easy to compare their ideologies surrounding Hetch Hetchy. On one hand conservationists and their ideology can be depicted in a quote by Gifford Pinchot when he was referring to Hetch Hetcy: As to my attitude regarding the proposed use of Hetch Hetchy by the city of San Francisco I am fully persuaded that the injury by substituting a lake for the present swampy floor of the valley is altogether unimportant compared with the benefits to be derived from its use as a reservoir. (Jones, 1965, p. 112) As stated in the quote by Gifford Pinchot, conservationists believe that by using nature to its fullest potential and getting the greatest amount of good from nature is reason to protect it (Righter, 2005). On the other hand the ideology of a preservationist can be encapsulated in a quote by Muir when he spoke of Hetch Hetchy, These temple destroyers, devotees of ravaging commercialism seem to have a perfect for Nature, and instead of lifting their eyes to the God of the Mountains, lift them to the Almighty Dollar (Jones, 1965, p.112). In this quote by Muir it can be argued that preservationists were not looking to use the land and its natural resources to gain money, but to preserve land by maintaining its original form for the sole purpose of being places of refuge and inspiration (Jones, 1965). The whole nation was influenced by Muir and Pinchot s opinions surrounding the Hetch Hetchy Valley and their ideologies on preservation and conservation. So much so two of the largest preservation and conservation organizations were created. Stemming from the
15 preservation movement was the creation of the National Park Service, which was officially founded in 1916. The influence from the Hetch Hetchy controversy was so great that government officials and American people believed it was necessary to form an organization whose sole purpose was to protect natural and unique landscapes. The creation of the National Park Service was a push in the right direction in terms of the movement towards modern environmentalism and it showed that the American people cared what land use practices can take place within our national parks. Today the National Park Service still holds on to the ideals from the preservation movement and it will continue to preserve our unique natural landscapes (Merchant, 2002). On the other had, stemming from the conservation movement was the creation of the United States Forest Service. The Forests Service which was founded in 1905, in the middle of the battle for Hetch Hetchy, worked to protect national forests. Under the Forest Service millions of acres of forests in the United States were put under protection (Worster, 1973). The US Forest Service maintains forests with the traditional conservationist mindset that natural lands should be maintained in a smart, manageable fashion in order to serve the greater good (Merchant, 2002). In many ways the battle surrounding control over Hetch Hetchy was the critical turning point of environmentalism in the United States. Had there not been so much debate over the land use in Hetch Hetchy it is hard to say what the United States would look like today. This controversy came at a critical time in United States history and the debate opened people s eyes to our destructive and consumptive nature of man (Worster, 1973). Although the results of building a dam in Hetch Hetchy were devastating, it was a sacrifice that almost seemed necessary for the protection of hundreds of other natural places. It also allowed for the formation of both the National Park Service and United States Forest Service which were a driving force in the birth of modern environmentalism (Righter, 2005).
16 Conclusion Overall, the battle for Hetch Hetchy in Yosemite National Park is significant. The battle exemplified what can happen to our national land if there is not considerable protection in place. The fight for control of the valley brought many headstrong and passionate individuals into the world of environmentalism and in turn these individuals, specifically John Muir and Gifford Pinchot, captivated the nation with their ideas. The conservation and preservation movements, which were brought into the limelight by the Hetch Hetcy controversy, were critical steps towards modern environmentalism. To many it could be said that the damming of Hetch Hetchy was a loss, but due to the loss we as a nation were able to band together to fight for organizations such as the National Park Service, Sierra Club, and the United States Forest Service. So, without the national attention and controversy that surrounded Hetch Hetchy it would be hard to say what the landscapes across the United States would look like today.
17 Bibliography John Muir s Hetch Hetchy Valley whisper down the write alley. (n.d.). whisper down the write alley. Retrieved December 11, 2011, from http://whisperdownthewritealley. wordpress.com/2008/01/30/john-muirs-hetch-hetchy-valley/ Jones, H. (1965). John Muir and the Sierra Club: The Battle for Yosemite. San Francisco: Sierra Club. Magoc, C. J. (2006). Environmental issues in American history: a reference guide with primary documents. New York: Greenwood Press. Merchant, C. (2002). The Columbia guide to American environmental history. Columbia: Columbia University Press. Righter, R. W. (2005). The battle over Hetch Hetchy: America's most controversial dam and the birth of modern environmentalism. London: Oxford University Press. Sierra Nevada Galleries. (n.d.). Sierra Nevada Photos - Home Page. Retrieved December 11, 2011, from http://www.sierranevadaphotos.com Worster, D. (1973). American Environmentalism; the formative period, 1860-1915.. New York, NY: Wiley.