TEMPLE ENTRY MOVEMENT IN TAMIL NADU

TEMPLE ENTRY MOVEMENT IN TAMIL NADU Temple Entry Movement was a part of the escalating campaign of mass civil disobedience, which marked a major watershed in the political life of Tamil Nadu. The advent of Gandhiji into the National Movement was a great blessing to the marginalised people. In the annual session of the Indian National Congress held at Nagpur in 1920, a distinct and unequivocal political resolution was adopted for the admission of the depressed classes into the Hindu temples. ^ By the Bardoli Resolution of 1922, Gandhiji brought out a new colour of social content to the Congress programme by advocating the idea of removal of untouchability.^ At the Congress session at Kakkinada, a resolution was passed due to the initiative of T.K.Madhavan, a prominent nationalist from Travancore, that proper steps should be taken for the eradication of untouchability in the country.^ The Congress volunteers tried S.R. Bakshi (ed.), C.F. Andrews - The Gandhian Thought (Delhi: Akashdeep Publishing House, 1990), Vol.1, pp.336-338. Stanley Wolpert, An Introduction to India (New Delhi : Viking Publications, 1991), pp. 128-133. Bipin Chandra, India's Struggle for Independence (New Delhi : Viking Publications, 1985), p.230.

209 to convince the people that the denial of elementary rights amounted to a great social injustice. The net result was the inauguration of the Temple Entry Movement. It was a socioreligious protest spearheaded by an oppressed section of Hindu Society against the tyranny of caste system.'* It was not a mere process of opposing sanskritization but a determined struggle against religious segregation and social discrimination. By raising the banner of resistance against untouchability, it marked the beginning of another struggle for socio-religious equality and civil liberties in Tamil Nadu.^ Gandhiji advocated temple-entry as one of the greatest campaigns for the eradication of untouchability. He issued a series of press statements and a stream of letters to his numerous correspondents to educate the people about the evils of untouchability.^ He arranged for the publication of a weekly paper Harijan to promote his campaign. He called the 4. Rajendra Prasad, At The Feet of Mahatma Gandhi (Bombay : Asia Publishing House, 1961), pp.146-149. 5. P. Chidambaram Pillai, Right of Temple Entrv (Nagercoil : Alexandra Press, 1933), pp.23-25. 6. B.R. Nanda, Gandhi and His Critics (Delhi : Oxford University Press, 1985), pp.23-24.

210 untouchables as Harijans (Sons of God). Gandhiji gave primary importance to the abolition of untouchability.^ As the first step to carry on the propaganda for the abolition of untouchability, the caste - Hindus inaugurated an All India Anti-Untouchability League in Bombay on 30^'^ September 1932 with the blessings of Gandhiji.^ Subsequently the League was named as 'Harijan Sevak Sangh' with Delhi as its headquarters.^ At the time of its inauguration Gandhiji was in prison. When he was released on 22"'^ August 1933, Gandhiji observed that the Harijan service would always be his first priority and would be the breath of life for him and the most precious one than his daily bread.i After the formation of the Harijan Sevak Sangh at the national level with Seth Ghanshyandas Birla and Ainritlal 7. Stanley Wolpert, op.cit.. p.64. Young India. 6'^ August 1931. 8. CWMG. Vol.LIV, p. 17. 9. D.G. Tendulkar, Mahatma - Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (New Delhi : Government of India Publications, 1992), VoLIII, p. 146. 10. B. Kuppuswami, Social Change in India (Delhi : Vikas Publications, 1972), pp. 148-149.

211 V. Thakkar as its President and General Secretary respectively, ^^ its branches were opened all over the country within a short span of time. The Tamil Nadu Harijan Sevak Sangh under the leadership of Dr. T.S.S. Rajan was also immediately formed with its headquarters at Tiruchirapalli.i^ By exhibiting his extraordinary talents and ability, T.S.S. Rajan organised a lot of Harijan welfare workers mostly prominent Congress leaders and established branches of the Sangh at district, taluk and even at village level to carry out the Harijan service.^^ The Tamil Nadu Harijan Sevak Sangh with its galaxy of versatile and dedicated leaders and volunteers totally plunged into the service for achieving Harijan Temple Entry at an earlier date and for the removal of all sorts of social disabilities from the Hindu Society to give ways for the upliftment of Harijans.^* Gandhiji wanted to mobilise the popular will in favour of the abolition of untouchability and the right of temple 11. CWMG. Vol.LlV, pp. 18-19. 12. M. Muthukrishnan, Tamil Nadu Harijan Sevak Sangh (Madras : Thackar Baba Vidyalaya, 1967), pp. 1-4. 13. Annual Report of the Tamil Nadu Hariian Sevak Sangh. Trichi for the year 1932-33. p.l. 14. Harold R. Issacs, India's Ex-Untouchables (New York : The John Day Company, 1965), pp.37-44.

212 entry to the Harijans. Gandhiji requested A.V. Thakkar Baba, to prepare a plan to conduct an All India Harijan Tour.^* As per the plan, Gandhiji reached Kanyakumari on 23'"'i January 1934 where he was given a rousing reception by Thakkar Baba, T.S.S. Rajan and others. Gandhiji spent a number of days in Tamil Nadu and created awakening for the cause of the temple-entry of the Harijans. His tour had made tremendous impact in the socio-political realm of Tamil Nadu.^ Blessed and solemnised by Gandhiji, surprisingly the Temple Entry Movement in Tamil Nadu was organised and sphere-headed by the caste-hindus who once denied permission to the non-caste Hindus for their entry into the temples.^'' PRELUDE ATTEMPTS OF TEMPLE ENTRY VAIKKAM TEMPLE ROAD ENTRY SATYAGRAHA Vaikkam Satyagraha was an important milestone in the movement for eradication of untouchability. 15. Rameshwari Nehru, Gandhi is my Star (Patna : Pustakbhandar, 1950), pp. 134-138. 16. S. Mahadevan, Mahatma Gandhi's Warning and Flashes in Harijan Times (Madras : The Journalist Publishing House, 1936), pp. 104-142. 17. Eugene F. Irschick, Tamil Revivalism in the 1930's (Madras : Cre-A : Publications, 1986), pp. 168-169.

213 It was started under the auspices of the Indian National Congress to secure the right of road entry for the untouchables around the Vaikkam temple^^ in Travancore. Gandhiji realised the importance of this social problem that impeded political emancipation.^^ When caste superiority and prejudice of higher castes kept millions of their low-caste brothers in a state of bondage, the nationalist programme of winning Swaraj was a dissimulation.20 Long before Gandhiji and the Indian National Congress spoke about temple entry and the removal of untouchability, a great social upheaval had taken place in Kerala under the leadership of Sree Narayana Guru.21 The Guru believed that caste was the main obstacle in the way of socio, economic and political emancipation of the country. His message "One Caste, One Religion, One God" had a profound 18. Vaikkam is a small town situated in the Kottayam District of Kerala. The name of the place is derived from Vvaghralava which means the residence of the Sage Vvaghralava. 19. K.P. Misra 8& S.C. Gangal (ed.), Gandhi and the Contemporary World (Delhi : Chanakya Publications, 1981), p. 140. 20. M.K. Gandhi, Caste Must Go And The Sin of Untouchabilitv (Ahmedabad : Navajivan Publishing House, 1964), pp.38-40. 21. Nataraia Guru. Life and Teachings of Naravana Guru (Varkala : Narayana Gurukula Foundation, 1990), pp. 37-41.

214 impact on the people.22 When T.K. Madhavan, a prominent member from the Ezhava community tried to present the issue of temple entry in the Sri Moolam Popular Assembly in 1921, Diwan T. Raghaviah disallowed the move on religious grounds.^^ After attending the Kakkinada Session of the Indian National Congress in December 1923, T.K. Madhavan circulated a letter, demanding creative action for the eradication of untouchability in India. He proposed to form an All India Committee for the Eradication of Untouchability and separate provincial committees to undertake the programme.2-* The Kerala Provincial Congress Committee met at Ernakulam on 20^^ January 1924, and formed an "Anti- Untouchability Committee" with T.K. Madhavan, T.R. Krishnaswami Aiyar, and K. Kelappan Nair as conveners.25 The Anti-Untouchability Committee conducted a 22. K.N. Panikkar, Culture. Ideology. Hegemony. Intellectuals and Social Consciousness in Colonial India (New Delhi : Tulika Publications, 1995), pp.114-115. 23. Sri Moolam Popular Assembly Proceedings. 1921, Vol.11, p.148. 24. Ved Mehta, Mahatma Gandhi and His Apostles (London : Indian Book Company, 1977), pp.215-217. 25. P.K.K. Menon, The History of Freedom Movement in Kerala (1885-1938) (Trivandrum : Government of Kerala Publications, 1972), Vol.11, p. 116.

215 meeting on 6^^ February 1924 in the Swarajasrama at Quilon and evolved a detailed programme for future course of action. In that meeting, Vaikkam was selected as the appropriate centre for inaugurating the programme.^e The Vaikkam Temple Road Entry Satyagraha got an all India significance. Leaders and volunteers from outside Travancore state also came up to take active part in this campaign.27 Even the Muslim sentiment of sympathy was roused.28 From Punjab, twelve Akalis^^ were sent by the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabhandhak Committee (SGPC) to open a free kitchen at Vaikkam under the leadership of Lalsingh and Baba Kripal Singh Mahant. But Gandhiji objected to the Akali Kitchen at Vaikkam on the ground that charity would degenerate the character of the struggle though it served well 26. K.M. Panikkar, Hindu Society at Cross Roads (Bombay : Bharathiya Vidya Bhavan, 1961), pp.95-99. 27. E.V.Ramasamy Naicker, Kovai Ayya Muthu and Dr.Emperumal Naidu were some of the Tamil leaders who took part in the Satyagraha. Ramasamy Naickar's fiery speeches roused the people of Travancore from their lethargy. 28. Report of the Inspector of Police, Attingal, 01.07.1924, TGER, Judicial Department File No.615/1924, Office Note regarding the Vaikkam Satyagraha, Vol.VI. 29. Akalis - a sub-sect of the Sikh community.

216 the needs of the Satyagraha camp.^o Sree Narayana Guru and the S.N.D.P. Yogam supported the Satyagraha movement. Sree Narayana Guru's Ashram at Vaikkam was placed at the disposal of the Satyagrahis.^^ He presided over a public meeting at the Satyagraha ashram and donated a sum of Rs.lOOO/- to the Satyagraha movement. The Nair Service Society (N.S.S.) passed an unanimous resolution earlier recommending temple entry, now turned against it.32 But some leaders like Mannath Padmanabhan and K. Parameswaran Pillai vehemently supported the movement. ^ Gandhiji sanctioned Rs.lOOO/- per month from the All India Congress Committee Fund (AICC) for the Vaikkam Satyagraha.'** The situation became so complicated as it was reported by the press that Gandhiji was against 30. CWMG. Vol. XXIV, p.67. 31. A. Padmanabhan, Story of Eight Saint Reformers (New Delhi : Government of India Publications, 1993), pp. 11-14. 32. C.J. Fuller, The Navars Today (London : Nicholls and Company Ltd., 1971), pp.20-30. 33. K. Srinivasan, Sree Narayana Guru Saint Philosopher Humanist (Trivandrum : Jayasree Publications, 1989), p.74. 34. H.J.N. Horsburgh, Non-Violence and Aggression : A Study of Gandhiii's Moral Equivalent of War (London : Oxford University Press, 1968), pp.90-91.

217 Vaikkam Satyagraha. The Anti-Untouchability Committee discussed the matter and it was decided that a deputation should proceed to Bombay to appraise Gandhiji of the working of the struggle.35 Gandhiji held discussions with the deputation on various aspects and problems connected with the Satyagraha. He was not only infavour of the continuation of the Satyagraha but also advised them to arrange a Savarna Hindu Jatha (an absolutely peaceful and non-violent procession) from Vaikkam to Trivandrum and back, consisting of caste-hindus alone to meet the Maharaja and to insist for the removal of the disability of the non-caste Hindus.^^ In the mean while, all the top leaders of struggle were put behind the bars. The Satyagraha leaders who were in the jail sent a message to E.V. Ramasamy Naickar a celebrated socio-political reformer of Madras Presidency to take up the leadership of the Satyagraha.'*'' He responded favourably and arrived at Vaikkam 35. The Hindu. 11*^ June 1924. 36. Chandrashanker Shukla (ed.), Incidents of Gandhiii's Life (Bombay : Vora Ss Co. Publishers Ltd., 1949), pp.314-316. 37. E.Sa.Visswanathan, The Political Career of E.V.Ramasamy Naicker (Madras : Ravi 86 Vasanth Publishers, 1983), p.43.

218 with some of his close associates. His presence and speeches inspired the people in and around Vaikkam. E.V.R. was arrested and sent to jail several times. At this juncture, a new awakening was seen all over Travancore, particularly among the Ezhava community. They came forward with warm support in terms of money, materials and volunteers. ^ This development caused grave concern in the official circle. The Vaikkam Satyagraha forged a grand alliance between the S.N.D.P.Yogam and the N.S.S. ^ This was an epoch making development in the social history of modern Kerala. Resolutions were passed requesting the Travancore Government to concede temple entry and right to worship for all Hindus without any caste distinction. The Vaikkam Spirit was the direct outcome of the first impringement of Gandhian ideals upon the politics and society of Travancore.^ But the Travancore Government responded with the policy of repression. As a first step towards this, they prevented the Satyagrahis from proceeding beyond the 38. The Hindu. 26'^ June 1924. 39. The Hindu. S^h May 1924. 40. K. Seshadri, Social Ethos of South India (Jaipur : Arihant Publishers, 1991), pp.88-90.

219 barricade, disallowed spinning in the typical Gandhian style with Charkcis.'*^ The sufferings of the Satyagrahis did not effect any positive change either on the attitude of the orthodox Hindus or the Government. The day to day developments in Vaikkam were let known to Gandhiji.'*^ He condemned such developments and expressed his hope that the Travancore Government would immediately set the matter right. At the same time, he encouraged the Satyagrahis to bear violence with unlimited patience and unconquerable courage.'^'^ While the agitation was indecisively dragging on, the Maharaja of Travancore Sri Mulam Thirunal passed away on 7*'^ August 1924, The Satyagraha was suspended for three days to mourn his death. In the meanwhile. His Highness Sri Chitrai Thirunal ascended the throne of Travancore on l^t September 1924.44 But owing to his minority. Rani Sethu Lakshmi Bai 41. Swaraiva, 28* June 1924. 42. Vivek Pinto, Gandhiii's Vision and Values, The Moral Quest for Change in Indian Agriculture (New Delhi : Sage Publications, 1998), pp. 135-137. 43. "Patience means non-violence; courage means ability to suffer. There must be enough satyagrahis, ready to suffer the most refined tortures". "Message to Vaikkam Satyagrahis". Sabarmathi, 2"^ June 1924. 44. T.K. Velu Pillai, The Travancore State Manual (Trivandrum : Government Publications, 1940), Vol.1, p.28.

220 acted as Regent. To mark the occasion of the installation ceremony, she ordered the release of all the Vaikkam Satyagrahis who were kept in confinement. ^^ Gandhiji congratulated the Maharani for her generosity. When a proposal for opening of temple roads to non-caste Hindus was moved in the Travancore Legislative Council, it was defeated by the orthodox caste Hindus.*** N. Kumaran, the General Secretary of S.N.D.P. who moved the resolution, strongly criticised and condemned the Government's reactionary policy and its direct effect on the age long evil customs in the Hindu society.'*'' It was at this crucial time that Gandhiji visited Vaikkam on 9*'^ March 1925 accompanied by his son Ramadas Gandhi, Mahadeva Desai, C. Rajagopalachari and Ramanathan.*^ Gandhiji wanted to have a free and frank dialogue with the leaders of the orthodox section for making a 45. Young India. 11^^ September 1924, p.840. 46. Travancore Legislative Council Proceedings, Vol.VI, 1924, pp.318-333. 47. G.V. Narayan Murti, Naravana Guru (Bangalore : Bharata- Bharathi Pustaka Sampada, 1974), pp.35-37. 48. P. Parameswaran, Naravan Guru The Prophet of Renaissance (New Delhi : Suruchi Sahitya, 1979), pp. 116-117.

221 compromise between the Satyagrahis and Anti-Satyagrahis.'^^ He met Indamthuruthil Devan Nilakandan Namboodhiri, the leader of the conservative section on lo^h March 1925. The three hours long dialogue centred on the question of untouchability and unapproachability in general and matters related to the temple-roads in particular.^o The Satyagraha party was represented by Gandhiji, Ramdas Gandhi, C.Rajagopalachari, Mahadeva Desai and T.R. Krishnaswami A3ryar. The opposite party consisted of Indamthuruthil Devan Nilakandan Namboodhiri, K.Govinda Pillai, G.Venkatarama A3ryar, T.H.Ganapathi Ayyar and the Rajas of Thekkamkur and Vadakkamkur. However, no decision was arrived at eventhough the dialogue lasted for three hours. At last, Gandhiji proposed three methods*^ to resolve the Vaikkam issue viz. 49. Narayan Hazary, Subash Chandra Hazary, Amareswar Mishra (ed.), Eternal Gandhi (New Delhi : APH Publishing Corporation, 1998), p.217. 50. Saroja Sundararajan, March to Freedom in Madras Presidencv 1916-1947 (Madras : Lalitha Publications, 1989), p.326. 51. GWMG. Vol.XXVI, pp.418-419.

222 1) To conduct a referendum among the Savarnas within Vaikkam taluk or over the whole State; 2) An Arbitration ie each party to nominate a pandit and the Diwan of Travancore was expected to give the final decision. 3) An Examination by recognised pandits on the authenticity and meaning of the scriptural authority for maintaining unapproachability.52 On 12th March 1925, Gandhiji met the Maharani Regent at Trivandrum. He had recorded his impression that the Maharani was very considerate and sympathetic towards the aspirations of the weaker sections.'^ During his stay at Travancore, Gandhiji met Sree Narayana Guru at Varkala on 12th March 1925.** Both of them discussed different aspects of the Satyagraha and the Guru declared that he was not a believer in non-violence in agitations for removing social 52. Letter from Gandhiji to Pitt, the Commissioner of Police on 18th March 1925, TGER, Correspondence relating to the Vaikkam Satyagraha, Vol.VII, Judicial Department. 53. Proceedings of Gandhiji's Speech at Sivagiri, Varkala on 13th March 1925. 54. Murkot Kunhappa, Sree Narayana Guru (New Delhi : National Book Trust, 1988), pp.21-39.

223 disabilities. It is said that by means of argument, Gandhiji was able to convince the Guru of the efficacy and necessity of non-violence in all social movements and the Guru also agreed to follow Gandhiji's advise.** He requested Gandhiji to work not only for the abolition of untouchability, but also for the eradication of caste in India. As per the settlement, the Government of Travancore issued a notification on 4'^ April 1925 withdrawing the prohibitory order passed in 1924.^^ The Government atlast relented and as a compromise settlement declared open the roads on three sides of the temple. Thus after twenty months of relentless fight, on the advise of Gandhiji, the Vaikkam Satyagraha was called off on 23"^ November 1925.*"^ The decision of the Government of 55. S. Manickam, Facets of History A Spectrum of Thought (Madurai : Madurai Kamaraj University Publications, 1998), p. 106. 56. Journal of Gandhi Smriti & Darshah Samiti, January 1996. pp.94-103. 57. Bhikhu Parekh, Colonialism. Tradition and Reform An Analysis of Gandhiji's Political Discourse (New Delhi : Sage Publications, 1989), pp.220-225.

224 Travancore to throw open the prohibited roads on three sides of the Vaikkam temple, keeping the one on the eastern side closed to non-caste Hindus and non-hindus, by no means, be interpreted as a remarkable success for the Congress. Though the Satyagraha at Vaikkam was not a great success, it attracted the attention of people all over India. It was a milestone in the struggle for securing social equality and civil liberties. It brought for the first time the question of civil rights of the so-called Non-Caste Hindus into the forefront of Indian politics.* The Vaikkam Satyagraha had a tremendous moral impact on the whole of India and helped to bring the political and social movements within the fold of Gandhian revolution. GURUVAYUR TEMPLE ENTRY SATYAGRAHA Guruva3nir town is very famous for its Krishna temple. It is situated in the Ponnani Taluk of Malabar in Kerala.*' Due to the Hindu religious rigidity, the non-caste 58. M.P.Nair, The Vaikkam Satvagraha (New Delhi : People's Publishing House, 1964), pp.64-79. 59. V.I. Subramaniam (ed.), Dravidian Encvclopaedia (Trivandrum : ISDL Publications, 1990), Vol.1, p.315.

225 Hindus were not permitted to enter the temple. Earnest appeals were made by some of the social workers to the temple authorities to open the temple to the non-caste Hindus, but in vain. Disappointed and disgusted with the temple authorities, K. Kelappan Nair,*o a true Gandhian worker who took up the cause of the non-caste Hindus, commenced his fast on 20th September 1932, by laying in front of the temple in the hot sun.^^ His Highness Raja Manavedan, the Zamorin of Calicut, as the hereditary trustee of the temple vehemently opposed the demand of Kelappan. The Zamorin took refuge under section 40 of the Hindu Religious Endowments Act, according to which no Trustee could do anything against the custom and usage of the temples entrusted to him.^^ jhe Zamorin sent a telegram to Gandhiji requesting him to appeal Kelappan to suspend the fast for some months as the fast would wound orthodox conscience and such wounding would amount to coercion. 60. Bombay Chronicle. 7'^ November 1932. 61. P.C. Ray Chaudhury, Gandhi The Man (Mysore : Geetha Book House, 1974), p.50. 62. K.V. Krishna Iyer, The Zamorins of Calicut (Calicut : The Norman Printing Bureau, 1938), p.329.

226 In this connection Gandhiji sent two telegrams to Kelappan^^ IQ suspend the fast. Finally Kelappan broke his fast at 8.a.m. on 2"^ October 1932.s'* Gandhiji also sent a telegram to the Zamarin of Calicut to open the Guruvayur temple for the depressed classes.^* Meanwhile the Madras High Court gave its judgement on the question of temple entry in Guruvayur.^^ The matter was allowed to rest although Guruvayur temple was not opened to the non-caste Hindus for several years thereafter.^'' No doubt that the Guruvayur Temple Entry Struggle turned out to be a sad episode, but the temple-entry movement in general as such had gathered momentum due to the keen interest evinced by Gandhiji. 63. CWMG. Vol. LI, p. 150. 64. Gummadi Veeraraju, Gandhian Philosophy Its Relevance Todav. (New Delhi : Decent Books, 1999) pp.67-72. 65. Eleanor Zelliot, From Untouchable to Dalit: Essays on the Ambedkar Movement fnew Delhi : Monohar Publishers, 1998) pp.67-72. 66. Madras Law Journal 27. PP.253-258. Indian Law Reporter 31 Madras, p.236 and Indian Law Reporter 13 Madras, p.293 67. S.N. Qanungo 86 B.N. Panday (ed.), A Centenary History of the Indian National Congress (New Delhi : AICC Publications, 1985), Vol. II, pp. 265-269.

227 SUCHINDRUM TEMPLE ENTRY SATYAGRAHA From the earliest times, the temples in Travancore and their precincts were treated as Sanketam grounds^^ which were not opened to the non-caste Hindus. Like all other temples, the Sthanumalayan temple at Suchindrum in the erstwhile Travancore State (now in Tamil Nadu) was not accessible to all classes of the Hindu society. Until recently, the agamic prescriptions and timehonoured customs were most meticulously observed in this temple.^^ Even among the caste-hindus, there were restrictions; some sects could not move to all parts of the temple. There existed graded limits to various communities. In the Sthanumalayan temple at Suchindrum in the present Kanyakumari District, the Vellalas, Nairs and Chetties, were permitted to go upto the Ardhamandapa and the Tirucurra Mandapa and not into the Garbhagraha (sanctum sanctorum).''*' The Vairavis, 68. Sanketam ground means areas around the temple where immunity for Brahmins prevails from state interference. 69. S. Padmanabhan, The Contribution of Kanyakumari to the Tamil World (Nagercoil : Kumaran Pathippagam, 1981), p.32. 70. K.K. Pillai, A Manograph : The Suchindrum Temple (Madras : Kalakshetra Publications, 1953), p.295.

228 Saliars, Kusavar and Oil-Chetties were allowed to go up to the Dhuvajastambha only, but not beyond. A Namboodhri Brahmin with the customary caste-mark wearing clean clothes alone could go into the Garbhagraha and offer worship.''^ The Valankai and Idankai castes were strictly prohibited from directly making gifts to the temples.''^ The Avarnas like the Ezhavas, Paraiyas and Pulayas had to stand even a furlong away from the outer wall limits.'^^ ^ny one who disobeyed these provisions was liable to be punished. The non-caste Hindus were not only prohibited to enter the Suchindrum temple but also prohibited to use the roads around it. They were debarred from walking through streets where the caste - Hindus lived.'''* Teru-Marachans (Bamboo screens) were put up at the entrances of all the main 71. The Regulations and Proclamations of Travancore (Trivandrum : Government Press, 1929), Vol.IX, p.4. 72. V. Rangacharya, Inscriptions of the Madras Presidency (Madras : Government Press, 1919), Vol.Ill, p. 1705. 73. Reports of the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee (Trivandrum : Government Press, 1936), p.8. 74. K.K. Pillai, Studies in the History of India with Special Reference to Tamil Nadu (Madras : Published by the Author, 1979), pp.379-382.

229 streets during Utsavams,75 proclaiming the prohibition of entry to the forbidden castes. They were not allowed to go in procession or drive a carriage or go with open umbrellas in the streets/^ The road leading from the eastern side of Suchindrum to Kakkad village covering a distance of about a furlong and a half was maintained out of public funds. Even then it was not accessible to the Paraiyas of Kakkad on account of its proximity to the temple.'^'' The Paraiyas of Kakkad were not even permitted to drive their bullock-carts through that road. If they wanted to do so, they had to leave their carts in the hands of the caste- Hindus for driving them on a payment of four annas.'^^ Not withstanding this, they were subjected to various petty annoyances such as throwing of stones and insulting remarks 75. Utsavam means annual temple festival 76. R.K. Das, Temples of Tamil Nadu (Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1991), pp.7-15. 77. Speech of M. Sivathanu Pillai, Travancore Legislative Council Proceedings, Vol. VIII, p.679. 78. Joy Gnanadason, A Forgotten History : A Story of the Missionarv Movement and the Liberation of People in South Travancore (Madras : G.L.T.C.R.C. Publications, 1994), pp.28-29.

230 by the caste - Hindus. Yesu Ratnam, an evangelical man of the Salvation Army, Nagercoil Area Command was assaulted by the Vellalas for having passed along a path intended only for caste- Hindus.''^ An English man and his wife, who were going along the Kakkad road were seriously assaulted by the caste-hindus.8 There were instances when untouchables like the Paraiyas were persuaded to transgress the pollution limits deliberately so that pseudonymous cases were filed against them.^^ Cases of pollution of temples were decided by the Huzur treasury and if the Avarnas were unable to pay the sum required for Sudhikalasatn (purification ceremony), some other punishments were given.^^ It was certainly an anomaly and a negation of the civil liberty to deny the Avarnas the right to walk along the streets used by the caste-hindus.^^ The liberal minded 79. TGER, Cover File No. 1627, dated 3^^ January 1898. 80. Speech of M. Subramania Pillai, Travancore Legislative Council Proceedings, Vol.VIII, p.677. 81. TGER, Cover File No. 1627, dated 27th December 1892. 82. TGER, Cover File No. 1585, dated 21«t December 1892. 83. Speech of K.N. Kesavan Namboodhiripad, Proceedings of the Sri Chitra State Council, Vol.IX, p.30.

231 reformers felt that the total exclusion of Avarnas from the temple was a blot on Hinduism and its removal was indispensable.^* They advocated temple entry as one of the means of removing untouchability. * It was brought before the Sri Moolam Popular Assembly by Kumaran Asan, a prominent member who drew the attention of the Government to this evil practice. He demanded the removal of the tindal palakas (prohibition boards) placed near the temple. ^ He condemned the existence of the notice boards in the Hindu temples prohibiting the entry of non-caste Hindus beyond certain limits. The Ezhavas could not go up to the outer wall of the temple during the UtsavamP"^ period. During the festival occasions, the entire village was closed against the non-caste Hindus. The Avarnas of this locality were looking up to the Government and the caste-hindus for a long time to remove the nefarious customs and liberate them from the tyranny of 84. The Indian Review. July 1937, p.426. 85. M.K. Gandhi, None High : None Low (Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1965), pp.ill-112. 86. Proceedings of the Sri Moolam Popular Assembly, Travancore, 11'^ to the 15*^ Sessions, 1916, p. 120. 87. Utsavam means festival.

232 orthodox opinion, but all these were in vain.s^ As a result of this intolerable situation, the Nadars, Ezhavas and other Depressed classes resorted to Satyagraha at the Suchindrum roads. Their leaders found that any amount of representation, appeal etc. would not shake the Government and the caste- Hindus. So they began to assert their birth right by offering Satyagraha. ' During this time, the Vaikkam Satyagraha created a stir all over the State.' One of the highlights of that Satyagraha was the Savarna Hindu Jatha from Vaikkam to Trivandrum under the supreme command of Mannath Padmanabhan a prominent Nair leader. A similar procession of about eighty, caste-hindus including Brahmins, Vellalas and Nairs marched in military order from Kottar to Trivandrum 88. TGER, Cover File No.3679, Letter dated 25tii November 1887 from T. Rama Rao, Diwan of Travancore to Periyavinayagom Markenden of Alakiapandiapuram Pidagai. 89. M. Immanuel, The Dravidian Lineages A Socio-Historical Study : The Nadars Through the Ages (Nagercoil : Historical Research 8& Publication Trust, 2002), pp.330-333. 90. M.M. Verma, Gandhiii's Technique of Mass Mobilization (New Delhi : R.K.Gupta & Co., 1990), pp.118-125.

233 under the leadership of M.E.Naidu.^^ Both met at Trivandrum and a memorial was submitted to the Maharani - Regent Sethu Lakshmi Bai on 12^^ November 1924.^2 n ^^s later announced by the Maharani that the approach roads adjacent to the Vaikkam temple were formally opened to all Hindus, irrespective of caste. But this concession was not extended to other temples in Travancore. Hence movements for getting the roads opened to the Avarnas were organised in such centres like Ambalapuzha, Tiruvarpu and Suchindrum.^^ At a special meeting held at M.E. Naidu's residence at Kottar on igt^* January 1926, it was resolved to begin the temple-road entry Satyagraha at Suchindrum.^* A working committee with M. Subramania Pillai as President was formed for this purpose. M.E. Naidu, H.Perumal Panikkar, P.C.Thanumalaya Perumal and Gandhidas were elected as 91. T.K. Ravindran, Vaikkam Satyagraha and Gandhi, op.cit.. p.97. 92. TGER, Note File of the Vaikkam Satyagraha No.605, Vol.1, p.4. 93. The Hindu. 13^^ November 1924. 94. No. D. Dis. 1475 (Judicial) Letter dated 21^^ January 1926, from M.E. Naidu to the Dewan of Travancore.

234 Secretary, Treasurer, Publicity Officer and Captain respectively. With the display of huge posters, distribution of leaflets and holding of meetings, M.E. Naidu forced the urgency of the reform.^* In accordance with the programme already chalked out, the Satyagraha started at day-break on 19*^ February 1926. The volunteers went in procession in large numbers with flags, singing songs from their camp at Kottar to Suchindrum and posted five volunteers there under the leadership of their Captain Gandhidas. ^ The five volunteers consisted of two Paraiyas, one from Brahmins, Ezhavas and Vellalas respectively. They were stopped by the Savarna Hindus led by S.K.Velayudham Pillai, a leading merchant of Suchindrum saying that Avarnas should not enter the streets surrounding the temple.^'^ The Satyagrahis sat on the road where they were obstructed, while the anti-satyagrahis also did so. Sharply at twelve noon, another group of five volunteers was posted there 95. Kumari Mavatta Thivahihal Varalarthu Malar (Tamil) (Nagercoil : South India Printing Press, 1979), p. 10. 96. No. D. Dis. 1475 (Judicial) Letter dated 19th February 1926 from the Inspector of Police, Edalakudi to the Commissioner of Police, Trivandrum. 97. C.S. File No.821, Report from the Chief Secretary to the Diwan of Travancore, dated 26^^ January 1926.

235 to relieve the first group. They were also at the spot till 5 p.m. M.E. Naidu visited the spot to encourage the Satyagrahis at noon. It was announced by the Satyagraha Captain Gandhidas that the Satyagraha would be continued in the Sannadhi street ie. on the eastern road of the temple in the successive days. Immediately after the announcement of the captain, the anti-satyagrahis took all precautions to foil the attempts of the Satyagrahis. Barricades were put up on the roads leading to the temple by the temple authorities. Prohibitory orders were imposed by the District Magistrate. Even then an enthusiastic band of volunteers led by Captain Gandhidas marched towards the temple precincts on 30"^ January 1926. E.V.Ramasamy Naicker, the renowed social reformer of Tamil Nadu also participated in the Satyagraha. 1 98. C. Kumaresa Pillai, Sentamil Valartha Seiku Tambi (Tamil) (Suchindrum : Kumaran Pathippakam, 1986), pp. 154-158. 99. Journal of the Kanvakumari Historical Cultural Research Centre. (Nagercoil : 2001), p.22. 100. M.K. Subramanian, Periyar and Self-Respect Philosophy (Erode : Self-Respector's Academy Publications, 1980), pp.61-62.

236 It was an inspiring and touching scene when the procession reached the Sannadhi street. As soon as the Satyagrahis approached the barricades, a large number of anti-satyagrahis stopped them. When Captain Gandhidas advanced further with another volunteer, they were stopped by the anti-satyagrahis. Before night fall, they closed the Satyagraha for the day and there was a meeting of volunteers in which M.Sivathanu Pillai presided.^ ^ M.E. Naidu, E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker and Perumal Panikkar of Kottar spoke on temple-entry. The agitation gradually enlisted the sympathy of a number of caste - Hindus, but majority of them continued to be hostile to the movement. Even then the agitation gained momentum. On 11*^ February 1926, a group of fifteen volunteers headed by Govindaraja Naidu, brother of M.E.Naidu arrived at Suchindruni.^ 2 He went to the north car street and announced openly about the proposed Satyagraha. 101. P. Ramachandran, Unsung Crusader (Nagercoil : Jeyadev Mohan Publications, 1991), pp.28-31. 102. No. D. Dis.1475 (Judicial) Letter dated 11^^ February 1926 from T.Kumaran Tambi, the Inspector of Police, Edalakudi to the Commissioner of Police, Trivandrum.

237 Immediately the caste-hindus rang the bell of Perambalamio^ and gave warning to the villagers. At 12 noon, the Satyagraha Captain Gandhidas and Chinnathampi of Kakkad pushed their way against the anti-satyagrahis. In the tussle that followed, their clothes were torn.i * The police stood opposite to them and prevented the tussle. So there was a dead lock for sometime. This created a stir in the village. The news spread like wildfire and there was a large influx of volunteers from Kakkumur, Kurichi, Parakkai, Marungur, Tamaraikulam, Osaravilai, Eraviputhoor and Theroor. They took their position behind the anti-satyagrahis. The caste-hindus were on full alert to oppose the Satyagrahis from forciful entry into the streets.^ ^ But due to the intervention of the police, both the parties left the place and the crowd had also dispersed. The situation at Suchindrum was fast deteriorating day by day. There were intermittent clashes and wanton 103. Perambalam means the big mandapa located in the South Car Street of Suchindrum. 104. P.S.Mony, Thiru-Tamilarivakkam (Tamil) (Nagercoil: Kanyakumari Publications, 1956), pp. 12-18. 105. C.S. File No.821, Report from the Chief Secretary to the Diwan of Travancore, dated 12^^ February 1926.

238 assaults in and around Suchindrum. Both men and women belonged to the non-caste Hindus were insulted and beaten by the caste-hindus. The caste-hindus assaulted thirteen Harijan boys who crossed the car street, after attending a celebration in the Mission School at Nagercoil.^o^ This was deliberately done at the instigation of Kumaraswamy Pillai of Kadukkarai and Thanumalaya Peruznal Pillai of Suchindrum. G. Devasahayam, a native of Kakkad complained about this matter to the police. Infuriated at this development, Thanumalaya Perumal Pillai threatened the destruction of Kakkad village. ^ '' The Government took action, prohibiting M.E.Naidu from making public speeches or taking part in public meetings or entering specified areas. i * The din and noise of Suchindrum Satyagraha reached the ears of Gandhiji. He carried on anxious negotiations with the Government authorities in Travancore regarding the opening of roads to non-caste Hindus in Suchindrum.^o^ As requested 106. Travancore Legislative Council Proceedings, 1926, Vol.IX, p.681. 107. No. D.Dis. 1475 (Judicial) Telegram dated 13'^ February 1926 from G.Devasahayam to the Diwan of Travancore. 108. Travancore Legislative Council Proceedings, 1926, Vol.VII, pp.314-315. 109. P.K.K. Menon, op.cit.. Vol.11, p.300.

239 by Gandhiji, on 27* February 1929 at 10 a.m. a group of Satyagraha volunteers, twenty-four in number visited Suchindrum and announced that they were not prepared to go into the streets until the anti-satyagrahis withdrew their objection, ^^o But they decided to stop the Satyagraha in response to a communication from C.K. Parameswaran Pillai, President of the Kerala Provincial Harijan Sevak Sangh, who informed that the police had come to an agreement with the anti-satyagrahis and the roads would be thrown open to the Avarnas.^^^ But the promise was not kept on due to the severe opposition from the orthodox Hindus. The Suchindrum temple roads were not opened to the Avarnas and the appeals made at various public meetings fell on deaf ears. It was therefore decided on 12* May 1930 to resume the Satyagraha Movement. Among the participants, one Gandhi Raman Pillai of Eraviputhoor who later became the leader of this campaign deserves special mention. 112 He was arrested along with other Satyagrahis while he tried to cross the streets of Suchindrum. He was sentenced 110. Rudrangshu Mukherjee (ed.), The Penguin Gandhi Reader (New Delhi : Penguin Books India (P) Ltd., 1993), pp.207-208. 111. Mahadev Desai, op.cit.. pp.22-23. 112. Kanvakumari. 22"^ August 1979.

240 to one year rigorous imprisonment. ^^^ on appeal, the High Court acquitted the accused and directed that the streets of Suchindrum should be accessible to all as a matter of right irrespective of caste, creed or colour. After the release of the Satyagrahis, the non-caste Hindus walked along the streets of Suchindrum without any opposition for nearly a week. But Pitchu Iyengar, District Superintendent of Police deployed a Special Reserve Police Force from Trivandrum to prevent the non-caste Hindus from entering the streets of Suchindrum during the festival period.^^"^ Besides this, the Satyagrahis were not allowed to hold public meetings. One such meeting conducted under the leadership of Messers M.E. Naidu, M.Sivathanu Pillai, Gandhi Raman Pillai and Sheik Tampi Pavalar in front of the Nagercoil Municipal Ground was dispersed by the Special Reserve Police. Alarm and terror had spread in and around Nagercoil. The outbreak was too serious at Erachakulam, 113. C.S. File D.Dis. 180/30, Report from the Chief Secretary to the Diwan of Travancore, dated 28"^^ June 1930. 114. Sree Moolam Popular Assembly Proceedings 1931, Vol.XX, pp.739-740.

241 Narikkulam Cheri and Elangadai.^^* At Narikkulam Cheri near Kanyakumari, the non-caste Hindus were not allowed to draw water from the common well and some of them were seriously assaulted.^^ The agitation lasted for a number of days and finally it fizzled out. The Government of Travancore soon realised that sustained efforts should be taken immediately to bring about desired changes in the status of the non-caste Hindus in the Hindu society. On 8^^ November 1932, the Travancore Government appointed a Commission consisted of caste - Hindus and non-caste Hindus to enquire and report on the question of temple-entiy.^^'^ For about fourteen months this Commission carried on its work and collected evidences. On 11'h January 1934, it submitted its report to the Travancore Government. The report stated that from the oral evidences secured by the 115. Report of the Kerala Provincial Harijan Sevak Sangh, Letter dated 25^^ December 1934 from M.E.Naidu to C.K.Parameswaran Pillai, President of the Harijan Sevak Sangh, Kerala. 116. M.K. Gandhi, Christian Missions (Ahmedabad : Navajivan Publications, 1937), pp. 117-120. 117. Report of the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee, p. 1.

242 Commission, there was a strong feeling among the caste-hindus in favour of temple entry rights to be given to the non-caste Hindus. ^1 Finally the thorny question of temple entry was settled by the historic Temple Entry Proclamation issued by His Highness Sri Chitrai Thirunal Maharaja of Travancore State on 12^ November 1936 and thus a great injustice was at last set right. 119 TEMPLE ENTRY MOVEMENT IN MADURAI The prelude agitations for entering the Hindu temples and temple roads in Vaikkam, Guruvayur, Suchindrum, etc. in the Travancore State served as instincts to the temple entry movement in Madurai. In implementing the constructive programmes of Gandhiji including the removal of untouchability Madurai stood first in the Madras state. The events held at Madurai and other areas enabled the Government of Madras to pass the Temple Entry Act in 1939.120 118. Hariian. 23^^ February 1934, p. 10. 119. K.F. Goswami, Mahatma Gandhi A Chronologv (New Delhi : Government of India Publications, 1971), p. 157. 120. V. Kandasamy, Madurai in Indian National Movement (Madurai : Sarvodaya Ilakkiya Pannai, 1993), p. 109.

243 REMOVAL OF UNTOUCHABILITY MEASURES IN MADURAI Due to the customs and traditions a section in the Hindu society was considered as untouchables.^^i These people were economically weak and downtrodden and lived in Cheries.^^^ They were called as Depressed Classes (Non-Caste Hindus) who were denied certain socio-religious rights enjoyed by other sections of the society. ^^3 They were not allowed to enter into the Hindu temples and were not allowed to take water from common wells. Gandhiji held that the practice of untouchability was a blot on Hinduism and asked the people to remove it from the Hindu Society. 124 However, no appreciable progress was made in this regard until the establishment of the "All India Anti-untouchability League" in 1932 at Delhi. S.Somasundara Bharathi, a celebrated Tamil Scholar was the 121. B.R. Ambedkar, The Untouchables (Jallandhar : Bheem Patrika Publications, 1977), p.47. 122. Cheries : The term itself means small lamlets of civilian settlements. In common parlance it was used to identify the Harijan settlements. 123. B.R. Ambedkar, Castes in India. Their Mechanism. Genesis and Development (Jallandhar : Bheem Patrika Publications, 1977), pp.4-5. 124. CWMG, Vol. XIX, p.332.

244 President of the League in Madurai district, who addressed a numbers of public meetings and led the anti-untouchability campaign in Madurai town.^^s xhe name of the 'Anti- Untouchability League* was changed subsequently into "Servants of Untouchables Society" 126 and its Tamil Nadu Branch was formed on 20*^ November 1932. S. Somasundara Bharathi became one of the 12 members who constituted the Provincial Board of the Tamilnadu Servants of Untouchables Society. 127 The Madurai branch of the society did a lot during 1932-33 to ameliorate the living conditions of the Harijans living in the Cheries in Madurai town. 128 The Society's workers visited the Cheries and cleaned the surroundings. They took soap and oil with them and bathed the Harijan children.^29 y^ (j^y school and one night school were started for the Harijan children.^^^ 125. S. Sambasivanar, The Works of Somasundara Bharathi (Madurai : Koodal Publishers, 1985), p.235. 126. B.R. Ambedkar, What Congress and Gandhi have done to the Untouchables? (Bombay : Thacker 86 Co. Ltd., 1943), p. 126. 127. S. Sambasivanar, The Works of Somasundara Bharathi (Madurai : Koodal Publishers, 1985), p.235. 128. Annual Report of the Servants of the Untouchables Societv 1932-33 (Booklet), Tiruchi, 1933, p.l. 129. Hariian. 8th juiy 1933. 130. Ibid., 15th July 1933.

245 Banians, towels and slates were distributed to them free of cost. Messers Chari and Ram Company offered scholarship to the Harijan students. Anti-drink propaganda was made through public meetings. A number of women including S.Thayammal, R.Lakshmikantham, V.Akilaandeswari, N.M.R.S.Parvatha Vardhini, M.K.S.Parvathavardhini, K.Lakshmi Bharathi, Dr.Pitchaimuthu Ammal and Meenakshi Ammal visited the cheries to offer their services to the Harijans and their children. 131 T^g Harijan children were taken to the residences of P.K.Ramachari, P.V.Somasundara Nadar and S.Thayammal. They were given neat dresses and taken around the four Chitrai streets in bhajans. P.V. Somasundara Nadar arranged 'Common Meals' in which Harijans and other communities dinned together. 132 A party from Madurai headed by Lakshmana Perumal Pillai and his wife made village to village visits and did effective propaganda for sanitation in the Harijan Colonies. 133 131 Bharati Pittan, India Nattin Erimalai Thavagigal (Tamil) (Madras : New Century Book House Pvt. Ltd., 1986, pp.41-51. 132. A.K. Navanithakiruttinan, Muthalamaichar Kamarai (Tirunelveli : SISSS Publications, 1957), pp.48-56. 133. Ka.Diraviyam, Desiyam Valartha Tamil (Madras : Poompuhar Printing Press, 1974), pp.61-69.

246 Among the marks of untouchability to be removed was the prohibition against temple-entry by the non-caste Hindus. The members of the Nadar Community were also denied by custom the right of entering into the portals of the Hindu temples as their profession 'toddy-tapping' was considered as one of the Panchama Pathagas (five sins).^34 ^^s early as in 1874 one Mooka Nadar tried to enter the Meenakshi Temple at Madurai but in vain.^^s jhe Nadar Temple-Entry case was taken even to the British Privy Council but the judgement went against the Nadars. Apart from Gandhiji's appeal, leaders like Kelappan of Malabar, E.V. Ramasamy Naickar and Dr.P.Subbarayan^^e also advocated the removal of this social disability from the Hindu Society. In order to enable the noncaste Hindus to enter into the Hindu temples, Dr.P.Subbarayan proposed to introduce the Temple Entry Bill in the Madras Legislative Council in 1932, but sanction to it was refused on 134. William Ferguson, The Palmyra Palm (Colombo : Observer Press, 1850), pp. 1-5. 135. Judicial Department, G.O. 2017-18, dated 12th December 1899. 136. Dr.P. Subbarayan was the Ex-Chief Minister of Madras and the leader of Independent Nationalist Party.

247 the ground that it was far-reaching in implication for enactment by a provincial legislature.i^'' The Temple Entry Bill introduced by Ranga Iyer in the Central Legislative Assembly in 1933 also proved abortive.^ During 1932-33, the Tamil Nadu Servants of Untouchables Society took referendums in the temple towns of Madurai, Kanchipuram, Kumbakonam and Sri Rangaxn. In Madurai, about 5732 Hindus were approached and among them 4746 persons gave their consent in favour of templeentry. ^^^ The referendums in general supported temple-entry. Elections to the six-seats in the Devasthanam Committee of the Meenakshi temple, Madurai were held in January 1933 and all the six seats were won by the candidates belonging to the Servants of Untouchables Society.^^o Thus in Madurai, which had hitherto been considered as a strong hold of orthodoxy, 137. Stephen Fuchs, Rebellious Prophets : A Study of Messianic Movements in Indian Religions (London : Asia Publishing House, 1965), pp. 15-17. 138. CWMG. Vol. Lll, p.345. 139. Annual Report of the Servants of the Untouchables Society. 1932-33, op.cit.. p.3. 140. The Hindu. 13'^ January 1933.

248 the campaign in favour of temple entry for the non-caste Hindus appears to be making some headway.^"^^ The Servants of Untouchables Society was renamed as Harijan Sevak Sangh in December 1933 and it continued its efforts towards temple-entry in Madurai. Gandhiji also implored to employ all the strength of this Sangh to secure temple-entry. 1*2 In the course of his Harijan Tour, Gandhiji visited Madurai on 25* January 1934 accompanied by Dr. T.S.S. Rajan President of the Tamilnadu Harijan Sevak Sangh. i'*'* j^g stayed in the house of N.M.R. Subbaraman and addressed many meetings in the town.^'*'* In a meeting held at Setupathi High School, the students of Madurai offered him an appreciable amount towards the Harijan Fund. In the course of his speech, Gandhiji exhorted the students to treat the Harijans as equal and advised them to visit the cheries and wash the clothes of 141. Fortnightly Reports, 4th February 1933. 142. Harijan, Vol.111, 22"^ March 1935, p.44. 143. CD Dalai (ed.) Gandhi-A Detailed Chronology 1915-1948 (New Delhi : Govt.Publications, 1971), p. 106. 144. A. Ramasamy, Tamil Nattil Gandhi (Madras : Gandhi Noole Veliyeetu Kazhagam, 1969), p.692.

249 the Harijans.^'** Due to the request of Gandhiji, a small temple in Mathichiyam in Madurai was opened to the Harijans by Mamda Konar on the occasion of Gandhiji's visit to Madurai.^'** Some Sanatanists^*'' in Madurai condemned the temple-entry efforts. Gandhiji also did not rise the temple-entry issue while he was in Madurai during January 1934.^*8 By 1935 Madurai had become an important urban centre for the Indian National Congress in Tamil Nadu. The city of Madras with a population of about four times that of Madurai had 4445 members belonged to the Congress Party whereas Madurai town alone had 2606 members.^*' In almost all the districts in Tamil Nadu, the rural membership in the congress party was more than the urban except in the case of Madurai where urban membership was more than the rural. Due to the 145. The Hindu. 27th January 1934. 146. Fortnightly Reports, 15^^ April 1934. 147. Under Secretary's Safe File No.877 l^t March 1934, pp.98-101. 148. Santanists : Orthodox Caste - Hindus 149. AICC Papers, File No. P.31 (1) 1935.