Religion, Art and Ethics

Religion, Art and Ethics

The historical Jesus of Nazareth was a rabbi from Galilee with humble beginnings. He never wrote anything personally. All information we have is eye witness or second hand information passed down by his followers. Jesus would have lived like devoted Jewish males. His public teaching earned him the collective disapproval of Sadducees, Pharisees and Romans. Around 32-33 C.E., Pontius Pilate, the Governor of Judea, ordered his crucifixion. No historical evidence of his body exists. The Christian religion is centered around the events immediately following the crucifixion and death of Jesus. His followers claim three days after his death they saw him appear. Numerous people claimed similar appearances for the next fifty days. At the Jewish Feast of Pentecost, Jesus ascended into Heaven where he is believed to be ruling with the God of Abraham and the Spirit of God. Together these three figures comprise the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus) and God the Spirit. This message of the resurrection of Jesus spread throughout the Roman Empire by the apostles. The earliest followers believed Jesus was the Messiah promised by the Hebrew prophets to deliver the Jewish people. Resurrection. Scholars estimate 10-15% of the Roman Empire became Christians 100 years after Jesus death. Four Gospel accounts were written over the next seventy years after Jesus lived and died. The Gospels were written in Greek but also record statements made by Jesus in Aramaic. 1. Matthew attributed to the tax collector who followed Jesus 2. Mark one of Peter s disciples and a presumed eye witness of Jesus life 3. Luke Paul the Apostle s doctor and traveling companion 4. John one of Jesus closest disciples Saul of Tarsus (d. 65) was a Roman citizen trained in Greek and Hebrew. Saul was a fiercely pious Pharisee who persecuted early Christians. He converted and became a preacher to non-jewish citizens of the Roman Empire after a mystical experience with Jesus on the Road to Damascus. His name was changed by Jesus to Paul (meaning little in Hebrew). Paul the Apostle was responsible for growth of Christianity in the 1 st century C.E. from Jerusalem to Rome. He has been attributed with 14 of the 27 New Testament books.

Rome had a variety of religious communities due to its cosmopolitan nature and tolerance. Roman religion revered nature. Etruscan preoccupation with omens influenced Roman spirituality. Romans adopted the Greek gods and renamed them in Latin. Romans envisioned a heavenly place for the rich known as the Elysian Fields, but the poor were grouped together in the underworld with little hope for happiness. Romans generally tolerated conquered peoples deities provided they were loyal to the Emperor and lived by the Roman Laws. The Imperial cult formed in Rome beginning with Julius Caesar. Roman Emperors were officially ranked among the gods and deserved the utmost loyalty. Roman depictions of Emperors imitated statues of the gods. Everyone in the Empire had to swear an oath of allegiance to the Emperor. This would be the biggest point of contention between Romans and Early Christians. Greek and Egyptian mystery religions gained prominence in the Middle Republic. Appeasement of god or goddess ensured a better harvest. The four major mystery religions were: 1. cult of Isis in Egypt 2. cult of Cybele in Phrygia ( Turkey) 3. cult of Dionysus in Greece 4. cult of Mithra in Persia (Iran) Mithraism was popular in the Roman military and it spread through the brotherhood of soldiers. Mithra killed the ritual bull as one of his heroic deeds. This act of sacrifice brought fertility to the Earth. Initiates were baptized, shared a communal meal, and celebrated Dec. 25 as Mithra s birthday. Women were forbidden from initiation. Rome tolerated Mithraism as long as it didn t interfere with the Imperial cult.

The closest followers of Jesus spread the message throughout the Roman Empire and many suffer death as a result. The exclusive nature of Christianity created a great backlash. Faithful Christians could not accept the Roman Imperial religion in addition to their own Christian beliefs. Romans often depicted Christians as cannibals for their ritual of Eucharist. Christians also called atheists since they denied the role of Caesars as Roman gods. 1. Andrew crucified, preached in Africa and Asia Minor 2. Bartholomew beaten with rods, crucified, beheaded, preached in India and Armenia 3. James brother of John beheaded in Jerusalem 4. James the Less thrown from the Temple Mount and stoned in Jerusalem 5. John brother of James exiled to Patmos, preached in Ephesus 6. Jude (Thaddeus) brother of James the Less beaten with a club in Syria 7. Matthew run through with a spear, preached in Egypt and Ethiopia 8. Philip stoned, preached in Phrygia in Asia Minor 9. Peter crucified upside down, preached in Rome 10. Simon the Zealot crucified, preached in Africa and Britain 11. Thomas killed with spear, preached in India These martyrs were examples for later Christians of personal sacrifice and commitment to Jesus of Nazareth. Catholic historians have maintained these stories and it is often difficult to determine whether they are historical accounts or legendary tales. Many of the accounts were written much later and might serve to promote Christian virtue by later church historians. Candida Moss, Professor of New Testament and Early Christianity at the University of Notre Dame, has led the way in this reinterpretation of Christian persecution in her book The Myth of Christian Persecution.

The Christian resistance often brought periods where Romans targeted Christians and major figures were executed or imprisoned. 1. Nero 64 C.E. Peter and Paul martyred 2. Domitian 89-96 C.E. John exiled and Clement the Bishop of Rome martyred 3. Trajan 109-111 C.E. Pliny the Younger executed Christians 4. Marcus Aurelius 177 C.E. 48 Christians killed 5. Septimius Severus 202 C.E. Christian conversion forbidden 6. Maximinus 235 C.E. Christians targeted generally 7. Decius 250 C.E. all citizens required to offer sacrifices to the Emperor 8. Valerian 257-8 C.E. Christians could be exiled or banished 9. Diocletian 303 C.E. general persecution edict In 313 C.E., after a series of wars to establish the clear Emperor, Constantine legalized Christianity as an official Roman religion. This enabled Christians under the leadership of Rome to regroup and formulate their faith. Roman Law became basis for Christian Law. Latin was most common language of Christian worship. In 404 C.E., Bisop Leo of Rome declared Petrine succession. The Roman church was believed to hold the primacy over the other churches due to this tie to St. Peter who was called the first Bishop of Rome. Christianity functioned as a state religion from Constantine until the fall of Rome in 476 C.E.

Ecumenical Councils were called by the major Bishops to discuss the doctrines of Christian communities. These resulted in numerous splinter groups who were not considered genuine expressions of Christian life. Councils were modeled after Acts 15 where the Early Christians met to discuss important social dynamics in their newly forming and changing Jewish community. Each council is known by its location. 1. Nicea 325 C.E. - At Nicea, the deity of Jesus was upheld. Jesus is the same substance as God the Father (Gk. homoousion) 2. Constantinople 381 C.E. - The dual nature of Jesus upheld. Holy Spirit was equal to God the Father. The Nicene Creed was formalized at Constantinople I. 3. Ephesus 431 C.E. - Nestorius condemned for arguing for two separate natures, with emphasis on human nature of Jesus. Cyril patriarch of Alexandria contended that Jesus was God who became man. Mary was the Mother of God (Theotokos) not just the Mother of Christ (Christotokos). 4. Chalcedon 451 C.E. - Monophysitism was condemned. The Divine nature of Jesus was a major topic. Jesus was perfect man and perfect God. Human and divine natures were complete and in union in one person. The Diocese of Rome gained significance through its role in moderating a dispute between Antioch and Alexandria. 5. Constantinople II 553 C.E. - Emperor Justinian called the council. Constantinople II condemned writings by three anti- Nestorian monophysites. Furthered divide between monophysites and church. Egypt and Syria remained monophysite. 6. Constantinople III 680 C.E. - Christ has two natural wills or willings... not contrary one to the other... but His human will follows, not as resisting or reluctant, but rather a subject to His Divine and omnipotent will (Walker, A History of the Christian Church, p. 147). Rome again triumphed in theological determination. Monothelite doctrine (Christ having one will) condemned. The Third Council of Constantinople ended the Christological controversies

Early Christians used a variety of expressions in the arts. Symbolism and icons were a primary way to identify early Christians without inciting Roman Imperial anger. Realism took a lesser role to symbolism in the earliest Christian arts. 1. The icthys (Gk. fish) was an acronym for the phrase Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior 2. alpha and omega beginning and end or A to Z in Greek alphabet 3. chi rho from Christos (Gk. Lord) also commonly depicted Numerology played an important role in early Christian art and music. Key numbers were: 1. 3 = Trinity 2. 4 = Evangelists (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John) 3. 5 = wounds of Jesus (2 in hands, 2 in feet, 1 in side) 4. 6 = humanity 5. 7 = Heaven 6. 8 = new beginnings 7. 12 = Apostles Four winged creatures from the Hebrew prophet Ezekiel s vision was symbolic of 4 Evangelists: 1. man = Matthew 2. lion = Mark 3. ox = Luke 4. eagle = John

Roman catacombs illustrate early Christian iconography. This sarcophagus is the earliest one of its type. These would be standard images Christians use in later works of art. The upper register has the following five scenes from left to right: 1. Abraham sacrificing Isaac 2. St. Peter taken to prison 3. Christ enthroned between Peter and Paul 4. Christ before Pontius Pilate 5. Pilate washing his hands before Jesus The lower register has the following five scenes from left to right: 1. Job and his friends 2. Adam, Eve and the Serpent 3. Christ s Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem 4. Daniel in the lions den 5. St. Paul on his way to martyrdom

Jesus as the Good Shepherd is another common theme. The crucified Jesus would be a much later Roman Catholic depiction, not an Early Christian one. Christ as Good Shepherd ca. 350 C.E. The Good Shepherd ca. 300 C.E. The Good Shepherd Mosaic in Ravenna 5 th century C.E.

Christian music followed the Jewish emphasis upon vocal performance. Bishops Ambrose and Augustine were known for their hymns in the 4 th century. Early Christians met in houses at first and in basilicas during the Imperial period. Latin chants accompanied the Mass each week. Five of the six parts of the Mass were sung. These were: 1. Kyrie eleison Lord have mercy 2. Gloria Glory to God 3. Credo Nicene Creed 4. Sanctus and Benedictus Holy, Holy, Holy and Blessed is He who comes in the name of the Lord 5. Agnus Dei Lamb of God A capella chants were sung by priests or monks. Abbesses and nuns were also known to write music and songs. Pope Gregory I (540-604 C.E.) has been attributed with a style of chanting that was enduring. By the sixth century, Christian music was the standard throughout Europe. The religious festivals featured opportunities for public singing and choral performances. The architectural structure of Roman and Byzantine Churches was perfect for vocal performance due to their high, domed and vaulted ceilings. Emperor Charlemagne (742-814 C.E.) helped launch a movement which produced Christian musical notation. It was intended to unify the liturgies and help Christians understand their parts in the weekly Mass.