SOUTHEASTERN BAPTIST THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

SOUTHEASTERN BAPTIST THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY CHART OF IMPORTANT NEW TESTAMENT SCHOLARS IN THE HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION FROM THE ENLIGHTENMENT TO MODERN TIMES SUBMITTED TO DR. ANDREAS J. KÖSTENBERGER IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF: BTI9800 SEMINAR IN THE HISTORY OF BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION BY NOAH W. KELLEY OCTOBER 30, 2015

Introduction The following is a summary of important interpreters of the New Testament and their works. For each of the scholars I have listed his or her name, dates of birth and death, major work(s), and contribution to the field. Important scholars are listed in bold; likewise with the most important works. 1 While I first thought of arranging the chart according to areas of research, I realized that this would require either duplication of material (when a particular scholar was active in several fields), or missing information (if I record a scholar in one place where they made multiple contributions). For that reason they are, for the most part, presented in the order in which they were discussed by William Baird in his History of New Testament Research, Vols. 13. 2 (Toward the end I have supplemented Baird s list of scholars with some evangelical scholars from Bible Interpreters of the Twentieth Century. 3 ) This preserves the somewhat chronological and topical arrangement that Baird used. However, I have also included for each scholar a section marked Area of Research in which I list some key terms relating to their work. This allows the user to search the document for a particular subfield (such as Textual Criticism, or New Testament Introduction ) to find which scholars contributed to that subfield. 1 The choice of which Scholars to place in bold admittedly reflects my own interests, which include Greek grammar, linguistics, New Testament theology, the relation of history and theology, exegesis and hermeneutics. Likewise, regarding which books are listed in bold, they are either books that I wanted to be familiar with because of their historical importance and influence, or books that reflect the development of my areas of interest. In addition, I also tried to place in bold not only those scholars and books that pertain to my interests, but also those who were pivotal in the development of the field of New Testament studies. 2 William Baird, History of New Testament Research, Vol. 1: From Deism to Tübingen (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992); idem, History of New Testament Research, Vol. 2: From Jonathan Edwards to Rudolf Bultmann (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003); idem, History of New Testament Research, Vol. 3: From C. H. Dodd to Hans Dieter Betz (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2013). 3 Walter A. Elwell and J. D. Weaver. Bible Interpreters of the Twentieth Century: A Selection of Evangelical Voices (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1999). Scholars drawn from this book will be marked by an asterisk (*). 2

Chart of New Testament Interpreters Name Dates Major Work(s) Contributions Lightfoot, John 1602 1675 Harmony of the Foure Evangelists (1644) A Commentary upon the Acts of the Apostles: Chronicall and Critical (1645) Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae (Hebrew and Talmud Exercitations, 1658-1678). Area of Research: Gospels, Jewish Backgrounds Contribution: His primary contribution to NT research is his pioneering use of rabbinic literature to illuminate the historical setting of the biblical texts. 4 His major work in this regard was his Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae (1658-1678) Simon, Richard 1638 1712 OT: Histoire critique du Vieux Testament (1678) NT: Histoire critique du texte du Nouveau Testament (1689) Histoire des versions du Nouveau Testament (1690) Histoire critique des principaux commentateurs du Nouveau Testament (1693) Nouveau Testament de Notre-Seigneur Jesus-Christ (1702) Area of Research: Old Testament Criticism, New Testament Criticism Contribution: Simon influenced many later thinkers through his scholarship. He used historical criticism to undercut the Protestant principle of sola scriptura. He also wrote in the vernacular in order to make biblical scholarship available to the public. Baird calls him the founder of modern biblical criticism. 5 4 Baird, 1:12. 5 Baird, 1:17. 3

Mill, John 1645 1707 Bentley, Richard 1662 1742 Locke, John 1632 1704 Novum Testamentum (1707) Epistemology: An Essay on Human Understanding (1690) Christianity: The Reasonableness of Christianity (1695) A Discourse of Miracles (1702-3) New Testament: A Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St. Paul (1705) Area of Research: Textual Criticism Contribution: The great work of Mill s life was the critical edition of the New Testament. The text is basically the same as Stephanus (3 rd ed., 1550), but he provided important notes and a textcritical apparatus. Area of Research: Textual Criticism Contribution: Bentley proposed a complete revision of the NT that was never made. However, he rescued Codex Alexandrinus from a fire in Cambridge. Area of Research: Epistemology, Philosophy Contribution: Locke s concern with linguistics and the historical background of the NT anticipated later NT scholarship. However, his enduring impact on the study of the NT is his view of epistemology and his view of revelation as that which we cannot find out by reason, but what does not contradict it. Deists would build upon this view of knowledge and propose that reason was sufficient for religion. 4

Spener, Philip Jakob 1635 1705 Pia Desideria (1675) Contribution: Advocated for the practice of the life of faith as more important than mental assent to correct doctrine. The church and society can be revitalized if people will live by the Spirit and the Word, rather than being content with lifeless orthodoxy. His enduring NT influence lies in his role as the founder of Pietism. Franke, August Hermann 1663 1727 Manuductio ad lectionem scripturae sacrae (1693) Area of Research: Hermeneutics, Exegesis Contribution: Franke believed that faith is more important than reason for understanding the Bible. He believed that the major goal in interpretation of the Bible is to distinguish between the husk and the kernel, the letter and the spirit. 6 The letter of the Bible is important because the spiritual meaning can only be reached through the literal meaning. His exegetical method was a significant contribution to NT research. Bengel, Johann Albrecht 1687 1752 Novum Testamentum Graecum (1734) Gnomon Novi Testament (1742) Area of Research: New Testament Exegesis, Textual Criticism Contribution: His Greek NT includes important text-critical notes. He developed a number of important textcritical principles. His Gnomon is a series 6 Baird, 1:65. 5

of notes on the NT. He engages in careful linguistic and historical interpretation. Wettstein, Johann Jakob 1693 1754 Critical Edition of the Greek New Testament (1751 1752; it uses the 1624 Elzevir edition text, but including his own notes and critical apparatus) Area of Research: Textual Criticism Contribution: Wettstein advanced the text-critical study of the GNT. His prolegomena gives 19 principles for evaluating textual variants. His apparatus increased the number of variants available to the text critic. His textual judgments were less tethered to orthodoxy, and represented a step toward the modern critical text. Ernesti, Johann August 1707 1781 Institutio interpretis Novi Testamenti (Principles of New Testament Interpretation, 1761) Notes on the Books of the New Testament (1786) Area of Research: Hermeneutics, Exegesis Contribution: By training a classical philologist, Ernesti s main contribution to the history of NT research is apparent: the rigorous use of linguistic and grammatical analysis in the service of historical interpretation. 7 Semler, Johann Salomo 1725 1791 Abhandlung von freier Untersuchung des Canon (17711775) Four volume work on theological hermeneutics: Vol 1 and 2: Vorbereitung zur theologischen Hermeneutik (17601761); Vol 3 and 4: Hermeneutische Vorbereitung (17651769) Paraphrases on NT books (17691792) Area of Research: New Testament Criticism, Canon, Hermeneutics Contribution: Semler divorced faith from reason. His most important work was his writing on the canon, in which he argued for the free investigation into the books of 7 Baird, 1:114. 6

the Bible. He denied that Scripture was all God s word; rather, he thought that Scripture contained God s word, and historical research was necessary to discern what was truly inspired. Semler is most important because he made a division between the Bible and the Word of God. This wedge becomes a continual problem in the history of interpretation. He was also one of the first scholars to dispute the unity of some NT books (Romans and 2 Corinthians). He also anticipated the work of F. C. Baur by positing a Pauline Gentile faction and Petrine Jewish faction in the early church. He was influenced by S. J. Baumgarten who was also the professor of F. C. Baur. Michaelis, Johann David 1717 1791 Einleitung in die göttlichen Schriften des Neuen Bundes (1788; English trans. Introduction to the New Testament, 1802) Area of Research: New Testament Introduction Contribution: Michaelis established the science of New Testament Introduction as an independent discipline. His Introduction was intended as a conservative defense of the Bible, but ended up undercutting its authority. He distinguished between inspired and reliable. Matthew and John were apostolic and inspired, while Mark and Luke were not. He then tried to discern how Matthew and John relate, and was concerned that they conflicted. He resolved it by positing 7

that Matthew was a translation, and that conflicts are with the translation, not the original (which we do not have). His work is the result of a combination of orthodox and Enlightenment presuppositions. Griesbach, Johann Jakob 1745 1812 Synopsis (1774) Inquiry into the sources from which the Evangelists drew their narratives of the resurrection of the Lord (1783) Treatise by which it is demonstrated that the entire Gospel of Mark was extracted from the records of Matthew and Luke (1789) Novum Testamentum (1796, 1806) Lectures on the Hermeneutics of the New Testament (posthumously, 1815) Area of Research: Textual Criticism, Gospels: Synoptic Problem, New Testament Exegesis Contribution: Griesbach was the first Enlightenment scholar to attempt a revision of the Greek New Testament. He also advocated for Matthean priority as a solution to the synoptic problem. Eichhorn, Johann Gottfried 1752 1827 Einleitung in das Neue Testament (Introduction to the New Testament, 2 nd ed. 18201827) Area of Research: New Testament Introduction, Hermeneutics, Gospels Contribution: Eichhorn used a mythical method of interpretation in order to explain away the supernatural elements in the Bible (for example, Gen 1-3). His critical Introduction proposed that an early lost Gospel was the source for the canonical Gospels, and that they represent mythical expansions on the earlier apostolic document (an UrGospel ). Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim 1729 1781 Nathan the Wise (n.d.) On the Proof of the Spirit and of Power (n.d.) Area of Research: Literature and Drama, Philosophy, Gospels 8

A New Hypothesis Concerning the Evangelists Regarded as Merely Human Historians (n.d.) Published The Wolfenbüttel Fragments (17741778, written by H. S. Reimarus) Contribution: Nathan the Wise argued for religious tolerance. In Proof, Lessing posits his famous ugly ditch the chasm between faith and history. 8 This demonstrates the influence of German idealism. In New Hypothesis, Lessing posits an Urgospel upon which the canonical Gospels are dependent. Lessing caused great controversy by his publishing of the The Wolfenbüttel Fragments (see below). Reimarus, Hermann Samuel 1694 1768 Apology for the Rational Worshippers of God, published as Fragments of an Unknown, or The Wolfenbüttel Fragments (published by Lessing) Area of Research: Historical Jesus/History of Early Christianity Contribution: Published posthumously by Lessing in seven parts, this essay is antisupernatural similar to the writings of Deists. In the seventh part, Reimarus writes that Jesus taught a moral message of the Kingdom, but his disciples made up Christianity by stealing the body and lying about it. Herder, Johann Gottfried 1744 1803 Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menscheit (4 vols., 1784-1791) Area of Research: Philosophy of History, Historical Backgrounds, Gospels Contribution: Herder interprets the history of humanity according to an evolutionary model, with Jesus as a central figure in bringing human religion to a higher, more 8 Baird, 1:168. 9

spiritual level. He emphasizes the human dimension in hermeneutics, and anticipates the history of religions school by advocating for the study of Persian religion as New Testament background. He proposes an oral Gospel that becomes an Urgospel that is the basis of the synoptics. Gabler, Johann Philipp 1753 1826 Updated Eichhorn s two volume Urgeschichte. His most important work is Discourse on the Proper Distinction between Biblical and Dogmatic Theology, and the Right Determination of the Aims is of Each (l787) Area of Research: Biblical Theology Contribution: In his Discourse, he argued for a distinction between Biblical and Dogmatic Theology. He suggested that historical exegesis would solve many doctrinal disputes. He also used the categories of accommodation and myth to separate between what the biblical authors taught (true BT) and the universal truths that could be distilled from those teachings (pure BT). Kant, Immanuel 1724 1804 Critique of Pure Reason (1781). Kant is one of the most important philosophers of this time. He separated between the metaphysical and the experiential and focused on morality. He was influenced by Descartes. He argued that you cannot know about a thing in itself, including God. But there is a universal moral law. Area of Research: Philosophy Contribution: God becomes non personal supreme being as the last figure in a syllogism that starts with our experience. This is the root of existentialism as well. This division between reason and experience is the foundational problem for modern man. However, God has crossed the gap in revelation and incarnation. 10

Schleiermacher, Friedrich Daniel Ernst 1768 1834 On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers (Über die Religion: Reden an die gebildeten unter ihren Verächtern. 1799). Brief Outline of the Study of Theology (Kurze Darstellung des theologischen Studiums; 1810, Eng. Trans. 1850). The Christian Faith (Der Christliche Glaube nach den Grundsätzen der evangelischen Kirche im Zusammenhang dargestellt. 18211822). Hermeneutics (n.d.). Introduction to the New Testament (Einleitung ins neue Testament, from lectures in 18291832). Life of Jesus (Das Leben Jesu. 1864). Area of Research: Systematic Theology, Hermeneutics, New Testament Introduction, Historical Jesus Contribution: His most important work is The Christian Faith. He is often called the father of modern liberal theology. Baird says that he is the most important theologian of the nineteenth century. 9 In terms of New Testament, he had a huge impact through his hermeneutics in that he pushed beyond exegesis and inquired into the nature of understanding. His Introduction continued the general trends in critical studies. His Life of Jesus was an interpretation of Jesus according to Schleiermacher s view of religion as dependence upon God and Jesus as the perfect example of God-consciousness. (This is the seed form of Bultmann s later existentialism. Religious experience is not dependent on historicity.) However, on many important issues, he continues the enlightenment trend of trying to rationalize and de-mystify the miraculous. de Wette, Wilhelm Martin Leberecht 1780 1849 Theodore, or the Skeptic s Conversion (Theodor, oder des Zweiflers Weihe; Eng. Trans., 1841). De morte Jesu Christi expiatoria commenlatio (1831). Area of Research: Old Testament, New Testament, Systematic Theology. 9 Baird, 1:208. 11

Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel Alten und Neuen Testamentes. Vol. 1: Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die kanonischen und apokryphischen Bücher des Alten Testamentes. 7 th rev. ed (1852). Vol 2: Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die kanonischen Bücher des Neum Testaments. 5 th rev ed. (1848; English translation: An Historico-Critical Introduction to the Canonical Books of the New Testament. Translated from the 5 th ed.; 1858). Concise Exegetical Handbook to the NT (Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament, 4 vols., 18451848) Biblical Dogmatics (Biblische Dogmatik Alten und Neuen Testaments, 1831). Contribution: He tried to occupy a middle ground between rationalism and supernaturalism. For de Wette, The essence of religion is feeling. 10 With regard to the Gospels, he preferred John to the synoptics and was generally skeptical about the authorship of many New Testament books. Strauss, Davis Friedrich 1808 1874 Life of Jesus (1835). Defense of My Life of Jesus (18367). Glaubenslehre (19401). Life of Jesus for the German People (1864). The Christ of Faith and the Jesus of History (1865). The Old Faith and the New (1872). Area of Research: Gospels: Historical Jesus/History of Early Christianity, Hermeneutics Contribution: Embraced radical Hegelianism and rejected Theism. He criticized any attempt to reconstruct a historical Jesus from the Gospel accounts. He attacked rationalism and supernaturalism and advocated for a mythological interpretation in which the whole of the Gospel narratives were considered basically non-historical narratives that were written to give shape to the early church s faith in Jesus. 10 Quoted in Baird, 1:223. 12

Baur, Ferdinand Christian 1792 1860 Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ (1845). Critical Investigations of the Canonical Gospels (1847). Die Epochen der kirchlichen Geschichtschreibung (On the Writing of Church History, trans., 1968) Geschichte der christlichen Kirche (185362; trans., The Church History of the First Three Centuries). Das Markusevangelium nach seinem Ursprung und Charakter. Nebst einem Anhang über das Evangelium Marcion s (1851). Vorlesung über neutestamentliche Theologie (1864). Area of Research: History of Early Christianity Contribution: Embraced moderate Hegelianism. Baur s philosophy of history viewed data and interpretation to be working together in dialectical relationship. 11 Reconstructed early Christianity around a conflict between Jewish (Petrine) and Gentile (Pauline) Christianity that was reconciled in early Catholicism. Baur also proposed that only Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians and Galatians, are authentically Pauline. Baird says that Baur s legacy is mixed: he is known for his creative energy and his all-encompassing theory, but he made many historical errors and is guilty of circular reasoning. 12 He pioneered tendency criticism. Gieseler, Johann Carl Ludwig 1792 1854 Historical-Critical Experiment Concerning the Formation and Earliest Fate of the Written Gospels (1818). Area of Research: Gospels: Synoptic Problem Contribution: Advocated for common oral tradition as a solution to the Synoptic Problem. 11 Baird, 1:260. 12 Baird, 1:262, 268269. 13

Marsh, Herbert 1758 1839 Dissertation on the Origin and Composition of Our Three First Canonical Gospels (1789). Area of Research: Gospels: Synoptic Problem Contribution: Advocated for a common written Gospel as a solution to the Synoptic Problem. Also gives tacit support to the two-document hypothesis in supposing that the Evangelists used Aleph (a narrative document) and Beth (a sayings document). 13 Wilke, Christian Gottlob 1786 1854 Die Hermeneutik des Neuen Testaments systematisch dargestellt, 2 vols. (1843). Der Urevangelist, oder exegetisch kritische Untersuchung über das Verwandtschaftsverhältniss der drei ersten Evangelien (1838). Area of Research: Gospels: Synoptic Problem Contribution: Advocated for the Markan Priority as a solution to the Synoptic Problem. One of the most extensive treatments of the subject in the history of research. He said that Matthew used Mark and Luke. Weisse, Christian Hermann 1801 1866 Philosophical Dogmatics (185562). Contributions to the Criticism of the Pauline Epistles to the Galatians, Romans, Philippians and Colossians (1867). The Gospel History Critically and Philosophically Investigated (1838). The Question of the Gospels in the Present Situation (1856). Area of Research: Gospels: Synoptic Problem Contribution: An idealist philosopher, he advocated for the two-document hypothesis as a solution to the Synoptic Problem. Though he was skeptical about the historical veracity of the Gospel accounts and sounds at times like Strauss, 13 Baird, 1:300301. 14

he believes that Mark gives the memories of Peter. Bretschneider, Karl Gottlieb 1776 1848 Probability Concerning the Character and Origin of the Gospel and Epistles of John, the Apostle, Modestly Submitted to the Judgment of the Erudite (1820). Area of Research: Gospel of John Contribution: Argued against Johannine authorship of the Gospel. Pitted the Synoptics against John, and suggested that the author of John was not an eyewitness, not a Palestinian, and not a Jew. He was part of the beginning of a rejection of Johannine authorship. Many of his arguments were later rejected, but the overall view has prevailed. Lachmann, Karl 1793 1851 De ordine narrationum in evangeliis synopticis, Theologische Studien und Kritiken 8 (1835). Produced a critical Greek New Testament: 1 st edition (1831). 2 vol. critical edition (1842, 1850). Area of Research: Gospels: Synoptic Problem, Textual Criticism Contribution: He worked in the classics (Homer), but also the NT. He wrote an essay on the Synoptic problem, in which he focused on the order of the narratives, in which he proposed that, which Matthew and Luke did not use Mark, Mark was closer to the primitive tradition than the others. With regard to Textual criticism, his key accomplishment was to break away from the Textus Receptus. He produced a critical text with an extensive list of variants, though manuscript evidence is limited. 15

Tischendorf, Constantin von 1815 1874 When Were Our Gospels Written? 4 th ed. (1880). Produced a critical Greek New Testament: 1 st edition (1841). 2 nd Leipzig edition (1849). 8 th edition, with prolegomena (1884). Area of Research: Textual Criticism Contribution: Baird says that Tischendorf was perhaps the greatest text critic of all times. 14 He defended the authenticity of the Gospels. He discovered Codex Sinaiticus. Copied Codex Vaticanus. Produced a critical Greek New Testament. Stuart, Moses 1780 1852 Grammar/Philology: Exegetical Essays on Several Words Relating to Future Punishment (1830). A Grammar of the New Testament Dialect (1834). Commentaries: A Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews, 2 vols. (1828). A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans (2 nd ed. 1835). A Commentary on the Apocalypse, 2 vols. (1845). Translated: Georg Winer s Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Sprachidioms (1825). Ernesti s Institutio (Engl. Elements of Interpretation, 1827). Gesenius s Hebrew Grammar (1851). Area of Research: Hermeneutics, Exegesis, Grammar/Philology, Commentary Contribution: Stuart was a conservative scholar with great abilities. His major works were his commentaries on Romans, Hebrews, and Revelation. However, he also translated some important grammatical and linguistic works into English. 14 Baird, 1:322. 16

Robinson, Edward 1794 1863 Hodge, Charles 1797 1878 Schaff, Philip 1819 1893 The Bible and Its Literature; An Inaugural Address (1841). Biblical Researches in Palestine... A Journal of Travels in the Year 1838 (1856). Later Biblical Researches in Palestine... A Journal of Travels in the Year 1852 (1871). Systematic Theology, 3 vols. (reprint, 1952). Commentaries: A Commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians (n.d.). Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans (Rev. ed., 1873). An Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, (1894). An Exposition of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians (1859). The Principle of Protestantism (controversial Mercersburg address, 1844). What Is Church History? A Vindication of the Idea of Historical Development (1846). Area of Research: Historical Backgrounds: Archeology Contribution: Robinson Studied under Stuart. He contributed to an understanding of biblical geography. He properly identified more than one hundred biblical sites. 15 His vivid description may have done more to promote the study of the Bible than hosts of academic lectures on higher criticism. 16 He also contributed to the area of biblical linguistics. Area of Research: Systematic Theology, New Testament Exegesis, Commentary Contribution: Hodge s commentaries have been very influential. His doctrine of inspiration was refined by his disciples and played a crucial role in the ongoing study of the NT in America. 17 Area of Research: Church History, Historical Theology (dabbled in other fields), New Testament Theology 15 Baird, 2:30. 16 Baird, 2:31. 17 Baird, 2:37. 17

The Person of Christ: His Perfect Humanity as Proof of His Divinity, with Impartial Testimonies to His Character (1865, Rev. ed. 1913). History of the Apostolic Church; with a General Introduction to Church History (1874). A Companion to the Greek Testament and the English Version (1883). Christ and Christianity: Studies on Christology, Creeds and Confessions, Protestantism and Romanism, Reformation Principles, Sunday Observance, Religious Freedom, and Christian Union (1885). Contribution: His most important works were in church history. He was dedicated to critical research, but also committed to his faith. He also supervised the translation of J. P. Lange s commentary into English and accomplished many other NT works. He led in the formation of SBL. Schaff s work is a massive accomplishment. 18 Hort, Fenton John Anthony 1828 1892 With Westcott: The New Testament in the Original Greek (18811882). With Lightfoot and Westcott: The Revised Version of the NT (1881). Commentaries (incomplete): The Apocalypse of St John I-III: The Greek Text, with Introduction, Commentary, and Additional Notes (1908). The Epistle of St James: The Greek Text with Introduction, Commentary as far as Chapter IV, Verse 7, and Additional Notes (n.d.). The First Epistle of St Peter, 1.1II. 17: The Greek Text with Introductory Lecture, Commentary and Additional Notes (1898). Judaistic Christianity: A Course of Lectures (1894). Prolegomena to St Paul s Epistles to the Romans and the Ephesians (1895). Area of Research: Textual Criticism, Commentary Contribution: He is primarily known as a textual critic. The Westcott and Hort edition of the Greek New Testament is his enduring legacy. It looks like much of the work fell on Hort. 18 Baird, 2:52. 18

Westcott, Brooke Foss 1825 1901 With Hort: The New Testament in the Original Greek (18811882). With Hort and Lightfoot: The Revised Version of the NT (1881). A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New Testament, 7 th ed. (1896). The Gospel of Life: Thoughts Introductory to the Study of Christian Doctrine (1892). The Gospel of the Resurrection: Thoughts on Its Relation to Reason and History (1906). An Introduction to the Study of the Gospels, 7 th ed. (1888). Area of Research: Textual Criticism, Commentary Contribution: His major contribution to NT research is... his commentaries. 19 He wrote on the Gospel of John, John s Letters, and Hebrews. He also helped Hort with the Greek New Testament (most of the work fell on Hort). Commentaries: The Epistle to the Hebrews: The Greek Text with Notes and Essays (1889). The Epistles of St John: The Greek Text with Notes and Essays, 2d ed. (1886). The Gospel According to St John: The Authorized Version with Introduction and Notes (1894). The Gospel According to St. John: The Greek Text with Introduction and Notes, Edited by A. Westcott, 2 vols. (1954). Saint Paul s Epistle to the Ephesians: The Greek Text with Notes and Addenda (1950). Lightfoot, Joseph Barber 1828 1889 With Hort and Westcott: The Revised Version of the NT (1881). Historical Works: Area of Research: History of Early Christianity, Patristics, Historical Interpretation, Commentary 19 Baird, 2:77. 19

The Apostolic Fathers. Part I. S. Clement of Rome: A Revised Text with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and Translations. 2 vols. (1890). The Apostolic Fathers. Part II. S. Ignatius. S. Polycarp: Revised Texts with Introductions, Notes, Dissertations, and Translations. 3 vols. 2d ed. (1889). The Christian Ministry (1901; originally published as an excursus in his Philippians commentary) Dissertations on the Apostolic Age: Reprinted from Editions of St Paul s Epistles (1892). Contribution: He was primarily a historian. He wrote commentaries on Paul s letters (including Galatians, Philippians, Colossians and Philemon). He also made important contributions to early church history. His major work, the Apostolic Fathers, undermined the reconstruction of early church history proposed by Tübingen. 20 Ritschl, Albrecht 1822 1889 Commentaries: The Epistle of Paul to the Galatians: With Introductions, Notes and Dissertations (n.d.). Notes on the Epistles of St Paul (I and II Thessalonians, I Corinthians 1-7, Romans 1-7, Ephesians 1:1-14): Based on the Greek Text from Previous Unpublished Commentaries (1957). Saint Paul s Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon: A Revised Text with Introductions, Notes, and Dissertations, 3d ed. (1879). Saint Paul s Epistle to the Philippians: A Revised Text with Introduction, Notes, and Dissertations (1927). The Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation (1874). Area of Research: Systematic Theology, New Testament Theology Contribution: Though he was largely conservative on critical issues, he emphasized ethics over metaphysics. This spiritual/ethical view of the kingdom 20 Baird, 2:71. 20

Weiss, Bernhard 1827 1918 Die Geschichtlichkeit des Markusevangeliums (1905). Das Leben Jesu, 4 th ed. 2 vols. (1902; Engl. The Life of Christ). Lehrbuch der Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1886; Engl. A Manual of Introduction to the New Testament). Lehrbuch der Biblischen Theologie des Neuen Testaments, 3d ed. (1880; Engl. Biblical Theology of the New Testament). Das Marcusevangelium und seine synoptischen Parallelen (1872). Das Matthäusevangelium und seine Lucas-Parallelen (1876). Das Neue Testament: Handausgabe der Griechischen Texte, 3 vols. (18961905). Der Philipper-Brief ausgelegt und die Geschichte seiner Auslegung kritisch dargestellt (1859). A Commentary on the New Testament, 4 vols. (1906). Contributions to the Meyer commentaries: Commentaries on Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Romans, Pastoral Epistles, Hebrews, Johannine Epistles was influential for later liberal theology. He rejected inspiration, the wrath of God and substitutionary atonement. Area of Research: Gospels: Historical Jesus, Synoptic Problem, Textual Criticism, New Testament Theology, Commentary Contribution: He published a number of works on the synoptic problem that basically affirmed the two-source view. He also produced a mountain of other works, including works on textual criticism, introduction, biblical theology, and commentaries. He also produced a popular life of Jesus. He practiced BT as a historical discipline. His text-critical work is important as well, being one of the three base texts for the Nestle text (after 1901). Baird concludes that Weiss was immensely productive, through his pictures of Jesus and Paul are slightly out of focus. Holtzmann, Heinrich 1832 1910 Geschichte des Volkes Israel und der Entstehung des Christenthums, with Georg Weber (1867). Introduction to the New Testament (1886). The Messianic Consciousness of Jesus (1907). Lehrbuch der neutestamentlichen Theologie, 2d ed. 2 vols. (1911). Area of Research: New Testament Introduction, Commentary Contribution: According to Baird, Holzmann represented the critical consensus:... he articulated an 21

Commentaries on the Pastoral Epistles, Synoptic Gospels, Acts, John, Johannine Epistles, Revelation emerging critical consensus that was to prevail among liberal scholars for a century: the two-document hypothesis; the pseudonymity of Ephesians and the Pastoral Epistles; the questionable reliability of Acts; the problematic authorship of the Catholic Epistles; the theological, rather than historical, character of the Fourth Gospel; the importance of Hellenistic backgrounds for the understanding of Paul and John. 21 He was massively important and influential in the next century. von Harnack, Adolf 1851 1930 History of Dogma, 3 Vols. (18861890; Engl., 7 Vols, 1958). What is Christianity? (1900; Engl. 1957). The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries (1906). The Constitution and Law of the Church in the First Two Centuries (1910). Beiträge zur Einleitung in das Neue Testament (1909; Engl. New Testament Studies). Area of Research: Theology, History of Early Christianity, Pauline Studies Contribution: Harnack produced numerous works on the historical development of the early church and Christian doctrine. He represents the high point of Liberal theology, and famously defined the essence of Christianity as Firstly, the kingdom of God and its coming. Secondly, God the Father and the infinite value of the human soul. Thirdly, the higher righteousness and the commandment of love. 22 He argues that Catholic, ecclesial Christianity and doctrine is a distortion of the pure religion taught by Jesus. He contributed to Pauline 21 Baird, 2:121. 22 From What is Christianity? Quoted in Baird, 2:125. 22

Wrede, William 1859 1906 Jülicher, Adolf 1857 1938 Über Aufgabe und Methode der sogenannten Neutestamentlichen Theologie (1897; Engl. The Task and Methods of New Testament Theology, 1973). Die Entstehung der Schriften des Neuen Testaments (1907; Engl. The Origin of the New Testament, 1909). Das Messiasgeheimnis in den Evangelien: Zugleich ein Beitrag zum Verständnis des Markusevangeliums (1901; Engl. The Messianic Secret, 1971). Paulus (2 nd ed., 1907; Engl. Paul, 1908). The Religion of Jesus and the Beginnings of Christianity, in History of Christianity (1906). Paulus und Jesus (1907). Gleichnisreden Jesus (18861910, on parables). studies in his investigation of the Pauline Letter Collection. Primary Area of Research: History, New Testament Criticism, New Testament Theology, Gospel of Mark, Pauline Studies Contribution: He reaffirmed the historical nature of Biblical Theology, in a radical sense in which it should be strictly historical ( The appropriate name for the subject-matter is: early Christian history or religion, or rather: the history of early Christian religion and theology ). 23 His most important contribution is raising the issue of the Messianic Secret in Mark. He proposed that Mark portrays Jesus and hiding his messianic identity, but in reality Mark is giving theology, not history. This derailed the Lives of Jesus based on Mark. He wrote that Paul replaced the religion and person of Jesus with a preexistent, heavenly being and this changed the direction of Christianity. Wrede was fairly radical. Primary Area of Research: Historical Interpretation, New Testament Introduction 23 Baird, 2:145. 23

Deissmann, Adolf 1866 1937 Introduction to the New Testament (1901; Engl. 1904). The New Testament in the Light of Modern Research (1929). Die neutestamentliche Formel in Christo Jesu (1892). Bibelstudien (1895). Neue Bibelstudien (1897). Bible Studies: Contributions Chiefly from Papyri and Inscriptions to the History of the Language, the Literature, and the Religion of Hellenistic Judaism and Primitive Christianity (1901; republication/translation of the two previous works). Die sprachliche Erforschung der griechischen Bibel (1898; Engl. The Philology of the Greek Bible, 1908). Die Urgeschichte des Christentums im Lichte der Sprachforschung (1910). Die Hellenisierung des semitischen Monotheismus (1903). Licht vom Osten, 4 th ed. (1923; Eng. Light from the Ancient East). Paul: A Study in Social and Religious History (1927). The Religion of Jesus and the Faith of Paul (1923). Contribution: He is most well-known for his work on parables in that he argued forcefully against allegorizing them. His Introduction became the standard for students at the end of the 19 th century. Primary Area of Research: New Testament, Philology, Historical Backgrounds: Archeology, Pauline Studies Contribution: Deissmann researched the papyri and showed that the language of the New Testament was common Greek. He also distinguished between letters (real communication between two people) and epistles (literary productions for mass consumption) and tried to classify the New Testament letters accordingly. He is important on the issue of union with Christ. Buttmann, Alexander 1813 1893 A Grammar of the New Testament Greek, (1873; trans. J. H. Thayer). Primary Area of Research: Greek Grammar Contribution: Demonstrated the difference between New Testament and Classical Greek. He said that New 24

Blass, Friedrich 1843 1907 Cremer, Hermann 1834 1903 Grammar of the New Testament (1905; trans. Henry St. John Thackeray). Revised by A. Debrunner and later R. W. Funk, now A Grammar of the New Testament (BDF). Commentaries on Matthew, Luke, John, Acts, and Hebrews Biblisch-theologisches Wörterbuch der Neutestamentlichen Gräcität, 7 th ed. (1893). Testament Greek was influenced by LXX and vernacular Hellenistic (descended from Attic). Primary Area of Research: Greek Grammar, Philology, Commentary Contribution: demonstrated that the Greek of the New Testament is common Greek. Primary Area of Research: Systematic Theology, Lexicography Contribution: His lexicon dealt with words that are theologically significant, though he reverts back to the view that the New Testament Greek is special Greek. Became the precursor to Baur s lexicon. Moulton, James Hope 1863 1917 A Grammar of New Testament Greek (1908). With George Milligan: The Vocabulary of the Greek Testament (1929). Primary Area of Research: Greek Grammar, Lexicography Contribution: His Grammar and lexicon. He believed the New Testament was written in common Greek. Ramsey, William M. 1851 1939 The Historical Geography of Asia Minor (1890). The Social Basis of Roman Power in Asia Minor (1941). Asiatic Elements in Greek Civilization, 2d ed. (1929). The Church in the Roman Empire: Before A.D. 170 (1893). Primary Area of Research: Historical Background: Archeology Contribution: Provided geographical information for historical background of 25

Dalman, Gustaf 1855 1941 The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, 2 vols. (1895, 1897). The Thousand and One Churches (1909). A Historical Commentary on St. Paul s Epistle to the Galatians (1900). St. Paul the Traveler and the Roman Citizen, 3 rd ed. (1897). The Cities of St. Paul: Their Influence on His Life and Thought (1907). Pauline and Other Studies in Early Christian History (1906). The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia (1904). Was Christ Born at Bethlehem? 3 rd ed. (1905). Luke the Physician and Other Studies in the History of Religion (1908). Grammatik des jüdisch-palästinischen Aramäisch (1894). Aramäische Dialektproben unter dem Gesichtspunkt neutestamentlicher Studien, 2 nd ed. (1927). Aramäisch-neuhebräisches Handwörterbuch zu Targum, Talmud und Midrasch, 3 rd ed. (1938). The Words of Jesus: Considered in the Light of Post- Biblical Jewish Writings and the Aramaic Language (1909; trans. D. M. Kay). Jesus Jeshua: Studies in the Gospels (1929; trans. Paul Ρ Levertoff). Orte und Wege Jesu (1924; Engl. Sacred Sites and Ways: Studies in the Topography of the Gospels, trans. Paul R Levertoff, 1935). Arbeit und Sitte in Palästina, 7 vols. (19271941). Jerusalem und sein Gelände (1930). the NT. Supported the South Galatian hypothesis on the book of Galatians. He wrote apologetic works defending the historicity of the NT. Primary Area of Research: Aramaic Grammar, Historical Backgrounds: Archeology, Jewish Backgrounds Contribution: He advanced the knowledge of Aramaic. He believed that Jesus spoke Aramaic as his native language. He also believed that the early Jewish church was bilingual (Aramaic and Greek). His work in Holy Land geography and culture has helped our understanding of the historical and cultural background to Jesus and the Gospels. 26

Schürer, Emil 1844 1910 Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 3 vols., 3 rd and 4 th ed. (18981901; Engl. A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ). Primary Area of Research: Jewish Backgrounds Contribution: His History of the Jewish People was the unrivaled authoritative work on Jewish history and life for years. Most scholars believe his work is valuable, but his portrayal of Judaism is a caricature. Charles, Robert Henry 1855 1931 His first work was a critical edition of the Book of Enoch: The Book of Enoch (1893). The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament with Introductions and Critical and Explanatory Notes to the Several Books, 2 vols. (1913). Critical History of the Doctrine of the Future Life: In Israel, in Judaism, and in Christianity, or Hebrew, Jewish, and Christian Eschatology from Pre-Prophetic Times till the Close of the New Testament Canon (1898 1899). Religious Development between the Old and the New Testaments (1914). A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Revelation of St. John, 2 vols. ICC (1920). Primary Area of Research: Jewish and Christian Eschatology; Apocalyptic; Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha. Contribution: His edition of the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha was the standard for years. He produced numerous works on Jewish and Christian Apocalyptic. Wendland, Paul 1864 1915 Die hellenistisch-römische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum und Christentum (1912). Primary Area of Research: Classics, Philo. Contribution: He worked on the relationship between Hellenistic culture and Christianity. He posited that Christianity is essentially a Hellenistic religion. 27

Hatch, Edwin 1835 1889 Pfleiderer, Otto 1839 1908 Weiss, Johannes 1836 1914 With Henry A. Redpath: A Concordance to the Septuagint and Other Greek Versions of the Old Testament (Including the Apocryphal Books), 3 vols. (1897). The Organization of the Early Christian Churches (1880). The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usage upon the Christian Church (1888). Essays in Biblical Greek (1889). Die Entstehung des Christentums (1905; Engl. Christian Origins, trans. Daniel A. Huebsch, 1906). Die Vorbereitung des Christentums in der griechischen Philosophie, 2 ed., (1912). The Early Christian Conception of Christ: Its Significance and Value in the History of Religion (1905). Das Urchristenthum, seine Schriften und Lehren, in geschichtlichem Zusammenhang (1887; Engl. Primitive Christianity: Its Writings and Teachings in Their Historical Connections, trans. W. Montgomery, ed. W. D. Morrison, 4 vols., 19061911). Entwicklung des Christentums (1907; Engl. The Development of Christianity, trans. Daniel A. Huebsch, 1910). Die Predigt Jesu vom Reiche Gottes (1892; 2 nd ed., 1900; Engl. Jesus Proclamation of the Kingdom of God, trans, and ed. R. H. Hiers and D. L. Holland, 1971). Primary Area of Research: Classics, LXX. Contribution: Suggested that the early church was influenced by Greco-Roman associations in the development of church government. While he recognizes the influence of Greek culture upon the church, he notes that the Greek element is not essential to it. Primary Area of Research: Hellenistic Backgrounds Contribution: Pfleiderer taught that Hellenistic backgrounds were key to understanding the NT. He incorporated Hellenistic backgrounds into a comprehensive view of the history of early Christianity. 24 Primary area of research: New Testament Theology, Commentary Contribution: He said that Jesus preached an apocalyptic, and 24 Baird, 2:213. 28

Ueber die Absicht und den literarischen Charakter der Apostelgeschichte (1897; Engl. Purpose and Literary Character of Acts). Die Offenbarung des Johannes: Ein Beitrag zur Literatur- und Religionsgeschichte (1904). Das älteste Evangelium: Ein Beitrag zum Verständnis des Markus-Evangelium und der ältesten evangelischen Überlieferung (1903). Der erste Korintherbrief, Meyer-Kommentar (1910). Das Urchristentum (1914; Engl. Earliest Christianity: A History of the Period A.D. 30150, ed. Frederick C. Grant, 2 vols., 1959). ultimately mistaken, message. This undermined both liberal and conservative attempts to find a foundation for theology in Jesus teaching. Schweitzer, Albert 1875 1965 Das Abendmahlsproblem auf Grund der wissenschafilichen Forschung des 19. Jahrhunderts und der historischen Berichte. Heft 1: Das Abendmahl im Zusammenhang mit dem Leben Jesu und der Geschichte des Urchristentums (1901; Engl. Problem of the lord s Supper). Von Reimarus zu Wrede: Eine Geschichte der Leben- Jesu-Forschung (1906; Engl. The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of Its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede, trans. W. Montgomery, 1957). Geschichte der paulinischen Forschung von der Reformation bis auf die Gegenwart (1911; Engl. Paul and His Interpreters: A Critical History, trans. W. Montgomery, 1964). Die Mystik des Apostels Paulus (1930; Engl. The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle, trans. W. Montgomery 1931). Primary area of research: Philosophy, New Testament Criticism, Gospels: Historical Jesus, Medicine, Organ (J. S. Bach). Contribution: Presented Jesus as an apocalyptic preacher. His Quest, while proposing his own historical Jesus, he pointed out that 19 th century liberalism had painted a picture of Jesus in its own image. Paul was a Jewish eschatological mystic. 29

Gunkel, Hermann 1862 1932 Schöpfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeit: Eine religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung über Gen 1 und Ap Joh 12 (1895). Zum religionsgeschichtlichen Verständnis des Neuen Testaments, 3 rd ed (1930). Primary area of research: Old Testament, History of Religions, Form Criticism Contribution: began the history of religions school by suggesting that primitive myths form the basis of the OT creation story and the NT eschatological ending. He suggested that Paul s view of a preexistent redeemer comes from Babylonian and Persian myths via Hellenistic syncretism. He also pioneered form criticism. Reitzenstein, Richard 1861 1931 Poimandres: Studien zur griechisch-ägyptischen und frühchristlichen Literatur (1904). Die hellenistischen Mysterienreligionen: Nach ihren Grundgedanken und Wirkungen, 3 rd ed. (1927; Engl. Hellenistic Mystery-Religions: Their Basic Ideas and Significance, trans. John E. Steely, 1987). Das iranische Erlösungsmysterium: Religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen (1921). Area of Research: History of Religions Contribution: suggests that Christianity was influenced by Iranian pre- Christian redeemer myths. Bousset, Wilhelm 1865 1920 Das Wesen der Religion: Dargestellt an ihrer Geschichte, 4 th ed.. (1920; Engl. What Is Religion? Trans. F. Β. Low, 1907). Jesu Predigt in ihrem Gegensatz zum Judentum (1892). Jesus, 4 th ed. (1922). Die Bedeutung der Person Jesu für den Glauben: Historische und rationale Grundlage des Glaubens (1910). Die Religion des Judentums im späthellenistischen Zeitalter (1903). Hauptprobleme der Gnosis (1907). Primary area of research: History of Religions Contribution: Applied history of religions to Jesus and Jewish studies, as well as Paul, John and the early church. He affirmed that Judaism in the time of Christ was influenced by the religious life of the surrounding nations. Also, the early church was influenced by the Hellenistic religions. 30

Die Himmelreise der Seele (1901). Der Antichrist in der Überlieferung des Judentums, des neuen Testaments und der alten Kirche: Ein Beitrag zur Auslegung der Apocalypse (1895; Engl. The Antichrist Legend: A Chapter in Christian and Jewish Folklore, 1896). Die Offenbarung Johannis, KEK (Meyer), 6 th ed. (1906). Kyrios Christos: Geschichte des Christusglaubens von den Anfängen des Christentums bis Irenaeus, 5 th ed. (1965; Engl. Kyrios Christos: A History of the Belief in Christ from the Beginnings of Christianity to Irenaeus, 1970). Montefiore, Claude G. 1858 1938 The Synoptic Gospels: An Introduction and a Commentary, 2 nd ed., 2 vols. (1927). Rabbinic Literature and Gospel Teachings (1930). Some Elements of the Religious Teaching of Jesus: According to the Synoptic Gospels (1910). Judaism and St. Paul: Two Essays (1914). Primary area of research: Torah, Judaism Contribution: Positive evaluation of Jesus from a Jewish perspective; he points out that Christian interpretations of the Pharisees are often caricatures, he saw in Jesus a precursor to the liberal Jewish view of the superiority of morality and spirituality over ceremony. Klausner, Joseph 1874 1958 The Messianic Idea in Israel: From Its Beginning to the Completion of the Mishnah (1955). Jesus of Nazareth: His Life, Times and Teaching (1925). From Jesus to Paul (1943). Contribution: Jesus and Christianity were strongly pharisaic, it was Paul who influenced the faith by taking it to the gentiles and bringing along Hellenistic Jewish elements. Oxford Seminar on the Synoptic Problem 1894 ff Sources used: Albert Huck, A Synopsis of the First Three Gospels, 9 th ed. Hans Uetzmann; Eng. Ed. Frank Leslie Cross (1936). Participants: J. C. Hawkins, W. C. Allen, B. H. Streeter, chaired by William Sanday 31

Sanday, William 1843 1920 Streeter, B. H. 1874 1937 W. G. Rushbrooke, Synopticon: An Exposition of the Common Matter of The Synoptic Gospels (1880). Works Produced: John C. Hawkins, Horae Synopticae: Contributions to the Study of the Synoptic Problem, 2 nd ed. (1909). W. Sanday, ed. Studies in the Synoptic Problem: By Members of the University of Oxford (1911). Eight lectures on the Early History and Origin of the Doctrine of Biblical Inspiration (1893). An Examination of Harnack s What Is Christianity? A Paper Read before the Tutors Association on October 24, 1901 (1901). The Authorship and Historical Character of the Fourth Gospel: Considered in Reference to the Contents of the Gospel Itself: A Critical Essay (1872). The Criticism of the Fourth Gospel: Eight Lectures on the Morse Foundation, Delivered in the Union Seminary, New York in October and November, 1904 (1923). The Life of Christ in Recent Research (1907). Outlines of the Life of Christ, 2 nd ed. (1912). Sacred Sites of the Gospels: With Illustrations, Maps and Plans (1903). With Arthur C. Headlam: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, 5 th ed., ICC (1902). The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins: Treating of the Manuscript Tradition, Sources, Authorship, and Dates, rev. ed. (1930). The Primitive Church: Studied with Special Reference to the Origins of the Christian Ministry (1929). Contribution: members of the seminar worked on the synoptic problem. Contributed to the growing consensus supporting Markan priority. Primary area of research: Gospels, Gospel of John Contribution: chairing the seminar on the Synoptic Gospels was very significant. Argued for the authenticity of John s Gospel (until near the end of his life). Wrote a significant commentary on Romans for ICC. Primary area of research: Gospels: Synoptic Problem 32