1300 1400
THE BLACK PLAGUE In 1347, the bubonic plague arrived in Venice through the fleas on the black of rats on the Mediterranean ships. Venice was a major center for trade. Ships brought goods from the Middle East and Asia into Europe through Venice. The plague was a horrible condition. Puss filled sores formed and a black ashy skin condition followed. A high fever and sores indicated the sufferer would die in two days. Europe lost about ½ of its population during 4 waves of plague between 1347 1375. Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) wrote Decameron in 1351. Seven women and three men flee Florence to escape the plague. On the way, they tell 100 stories over a 10 day period to entertain themselves along the way. Boccaccio represents the literary realism of his day. His work describes the plague in graphic detail. Sores and symptoms were chronicled accurately. Widespread panic left sufferers to die with little compassion or care. Some partied like their final days were ahead. Hans Holbein (1498-1543) created iconic wood cuts a century after the Plague portraying Death celebrating its victories in Europe. These cynical scenes indicate the degree of desensitization that occurred following such a horrific wave of disease.
Religion The Medieval Catholic hold on Europeans weakened as death became commonplace. It created a more cynical environment. Medieval fear of death and Hell lessened. Religious services, ceremonies and customs became less frequent due to fear and lack of clergy. Mass burials were created due to the volume of corpses taken to cemeteries. Catholic clergy s questionable behavior increased criticisms in a perilous environment. Some extreme groups turned to selfmutilation to atone for the curse upon Europe. Many celebrated the end of the world as an act of God s judgment. Anti-Semitism rose since Jews were less prone to plague. Their cleanliness and social segregation preserved them from contact with plague sufferers. Humanities A morbid fixation increased in the arts and literature. Dance of Death by Hans Holbein the Younger 1490 The popular morality play Everyman featured Death as a powerful adversary of the protagonist. François Villon 1431-1463 C.E. wrote many poems about the preeminence of death that spared no one. Nobility and clergy alike suffered the same fate as peasants.
Social Medieval feudal structure based upon land ownership began to show signs of insufficiency. Serfs were presented more opportunities as the labor supply dropped. Population shifts enabled social mobility for the first time since the Roman Empire. Rural Uprising Agrarian communities suffered drought and weak harvests on top of the harsh conditions of the plague. Smaller farm labor force and poor conditions aggravated workers since they had to do more work with no compensation. Collective protests and riots by serfs against lords were unprecedented in the Medieval period. In 1358, French Jacquerie revolted resulting in hundreds of noble deaths (right). In 1381, Peasants Revolt led by Wat Tyler in England required King Richard II s intervention.
The Papacy of Boniface VIII (r. 1294-1303) marks one of the low points of the Catholic Church s history. Boniface manipulated others to ascend to the papacy. Pope Celestine V resigned the papacy because Boniface s accusations were harsh. Afterward, Celestine was placed under custody for two years until his death. Boniface desired to restore the supremacy of the Catholic Church at the peak of the Middle Ages. He declared Clericis laicos against Philip IV of France and Edward I of England after they used church lands without his approval. He forbade clergy to give up land without Papal consent. He also forbade taxation of clergy. In response to Boniface s actions, King Philip IV of France cut all monies to Rome. This financial blow caused Boniface to reconsider. France was one of the wealthiest and influential European kingdoms. In 1300, Boniface called a Jubilee and offered a plenary indulgence to forgive all sins. In 1301, Philip imprisoned the bishop of Pamiers. Boniface reinstituted Clericos laicos and pronounced the bull Ausculta fili (Listen, son) calling Philip to Rome. Philip circulated a false bull to counteract this one. Philip accused Boniface of blasphemy, simony, heresy, murder, and fornication. In 1302, Boniface declared Unam Sanctum, which claimed the papacy as the supreme spiritual authority in all Europe. Philip rallied France against the Papacy through propaganda. Boniface was taken captive by Philip and died a humiliated man.
From 1303-04, Pope Benedict XI (top right) desired to appease King Philip IV of France following the reign of Pope Boniface VIII. This indebted the papacy to the French crown. In 1305, Pope Clement V (second right) was too old to make journey to Rome so he decides to establish his papacy in Avignon. He appoints 25 cardinals who are all French. This caused great disrespect for the Roman papacy outside of France. England and Italy put in awkward place. Papacy becomes another tax collecting agency during this time. Serious spiritual decay resulted from the entanglements with France. In 1378, Pope Gregory XI heeded call of Italians to return the papacy to Rome, but he died that same year. From 1378-89, Italian cardinals elect Pope Urban VI (third right). France was outraged and elected Clement VII (bottom right) from 1378-94. For the next 40 years two simultaneous popes ruled. This has been called the Great Schism. Europe was in a huge spiritual crisis following this unprecedented division. French, Spanish, Scottish, and southern Italian Catholics followed Clement VII as an anti-pope. England, northern Italy, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and Hungary followed the leadership of Urban VI. In 1408, Catholic archbishops resolve to meet in at Pisa. Both Popes met in 1409 at the Council of Pisa. In 1415, John XXIII and Gregory XII both resign leaving the Papacy vacant. The Council of Constance in 1417 elected Martin V to restart the Roman Papacy.
The Hundred Years War was series of wars between England and France. Following the death of Charles IV of France (1294-1328) historic claims by Norse kings to French holdings provided the justification for English invasion. British claim to French crown was contested by the French nobility. British innovations and strategies made the war a more competitive conflict despite the fact the French outnumbered them three to one. British used foot soldiers, longbows and gunpowder against the French making medieval armor obsolete. British tactics included ambushes ended the more formal style of feudal warfare in Europe. British constitutional monarchy perceived political life in Europe very differently. They emphasized a participatory process between the people and their rulers following the signing of the Magna Carta by King John in 1215. French were disgusted initially by the British breach of feudal chivalry. French chain mail was replaced by plate mail due British successes and use of gunpowder. Joan of Arc led the French in the final stages of the Hundred Years War. Joan claimed Divine appointment to lead an army at the age of 16. In 1431, Joan was condemned as a heretic and burned at the stake. See Antoine Dufour s Joan of Arc from Lives of Famous Women c.1504. Ultimately, the French maintained control of their monarchy despite losses and evolution of warfare. British economic limitations ultimately cost them the war since they had to fight across the English Channel. The Hundred Years War marked the introduction of modern warfare in Europe.
Petrarch is often considered the father of humanism. He was raised in France and mentored by a Tuscan teacher. He was a poet and a scholar. Petrarch envisioned the scholastic or monastic life superior to other occupations. He restored, copied and edited manuscripts for other scholars to study and teach. Petrarch traveled throughout European monasteries and amassed a collection of 200 manuscripts. Petrarch revived Roman letter writing to chronicle his life and his discoveries. Some of these letters were written to Cicero, a Roman statesman and scholar, who had been assassinated in 43 B.C.E. His letters were composed in Latin. He felt more comfortable in the Classical world and had a harder time finding peers in his own day. Petrarch is a highly revered poet. His Canzoniere contains over 300 poems and sonnets in Tuscan Italian. He received the laurel crown in 1341 for his accomplishments, which is the highest honor for a poet to receive. Most of his works speak about unrequited or lost love. His inspiration was a married woman named Laura de Sade who died in 1348 from the plague. His sonnets are composed in the style of the Italian troubadour songs. Another major influence upon Petrarch was Saint Augustine (354-430), whose Confessions are often considered the first autobiographical account. Petrarch had a difficult time reconciling his love for Classical learning and his Catholic faith. His work inspired Geoffrey Chaucer, the music of Landini, Michelangelo, Thomas Wyatt, Edmund Spenser, and William Shakespeare.
CHRISTINE DE PISAN Christine de Pisan 1364-1430 (right) was a remarkable feminist in a context of male chauvinism. Christine was the daughter of an Italian doctor. She married a French nobleman at age 15, but was widowed by age 25 with three children to support. In 1399, Christine wrote Epistle to the God of Love to protest medieval male chauvinism. She revered Joan of Arc for her role as a positive female leader. Book of the City of Ladies c. 1405 features Christine as a leading character who interviews goddesses Lady Reason, Lady Rectitude, and Lady Justice. Reason explains that women are kept in their houses which limits their knowledge. Society is to blame for this folly. Christine uses an allegorical fashion similar to St. Augustine s City of God to demonstrate the accomplishments of women and to argue for greater support of female education. Christine became educated about examples of men who educated their daughters. 1. Sappho wrote powerful poetry that gained the respect of her male colleagues in Greece. 2. Minerva, attributed as Athena, represented the wisdom and artistry of the Greek world. 3. Hortensia was the daughter of a Roman orator. She was an example of a woman that commanded men s respect. Her father educated her because he loved her. 4. Novella was another example. She was a daughter of a Bolognese law professor. She was educated in law with an advanced degree. Her father dedicated a book of lectures on law in her name. In the following slide, the left scene depicts Christine speaking to three goddesses: Reason, Rectitude and Justice. The right scene depicts Christine as she helps build the City of Ladies.
LA CITÉ DES DAMES DE CHRISTINE DE PIZAN CA. 1410
Chaucer was the greatest English writer in the 14 th century. Canterbury Tales are a travel story similar to Boccaccio s Decameron that uses a cast of characters to tell a story from several simultaneous angles. His use of sexual relations in comedy makes him particularly relevant today. Twenty-nine pilgrims tell their stories as they travel to Thomas à Becket s tomb at Canterbury Cathedral. Various classes and professions were represented among the pilgrims. Each character follows in undermining or redefining the story of the previous one. The contradictions and varieties of perspective provide a layered narrative that is very unique in the Middle Ages. This plot structure is more common in the late twentieth century, but it was considered innovative in the fourteenth century. Chaucer uses an incredibly descriptive storyline to appeal to readers from any segment of society. His raw, human portraits reveal psychological depth of character that is unique in the Middle Ages. His work in its comedic elements reveals the breakdown of feudal piety and chivalry. The Wife of Bath represents the ideal Medieval woman in her beauty, poise, and well-traveled lifestyle. She is Chaucer s adaptation of a well known poem by Marie de France called Equitan. Equitan is the King of Nantes who tries to seduce a woman who is very difficult to persuade. The Miller s Tale undermines The Knight s Tale just previously completed in the whole body of work. The Miller was a hard working, burly man who was a lover of music. He married a younger woman, Alison, and he has concerns about her fidelity. The Miller s wife is a conflicted figure. She is outwardly pure but inwardly unfaithful. She is swooned by a cleric, Nicholas, who is supposed to be a chaste man. His religion is a cloak for his own devices.
Cimabue s Madonna Enthroned ca. 1280-90 C.E. is a masterpiece by one of the great late Medieval artists. Though Cimabue was a Florentine, his work draws from Eastern Orthodox iconography. It was in his role as teacher to Giotto that he contributes most toward a new style. In typical Gothic style, Mary s place in the center flanked by angels shows her position as Queen of Heaven. She serves as a throne for Christ who is seated on her left leg. Her hand gestures toward Christ but she is clearly the predominant figure Frequently, Medieval paintings heavily rely upon golden backgrounds and haloes to depict a heavenly scene. Hebrew prophets appear below Mary s feet. Mary is presented slightly more realistic which breaks Orthodox idealism.
Giotto di Bondone1266-1337 was a painter and architect. His discovery has become a bit of a legend. Cimabue discovered a shepherd boy drawing pictures of sheep on a rock. Cimabue took Giotto under his tutelage and he became a masterful artist. Giotto s work represents a pre-cursor to Renaissance painting. 1. Giotto broke with the Medieval religious artistic form which was based upon Orthodox iconography. 2. His works portrayed the tension and emotion of Biblical stories. 3. Giotto also observed nature in order to depict animals, plants, and settings more accurately. Giotto was a product of his time in many ways. 1. He maintained Medieval ties by painting religious subject matter. 2. His perspective is still an issue like his peers. 3. His scale is not precise. 4. Figures lack realistic proportionality. 5. Giotto used materials common to other medieval painters. 6. His landscapes are stylized like medieval landscapes.
In 1303, Enrico Scrovegni commissioned him to paint the Arena Chapel in Padua In the interior of the entire Arena Chapel, Giotto covered the barrel vault with scenes from the life of Christ. He wanted to make the Biblical stories come to life as never before in stained glass or Byzantine mosaics. In The Lamentation, Giotto s use of line guides the eye from the upper right to lower left through the sloping hillside. Giotto places the face of Jesus as the central point despite its location in the bottom left. Study the faces and see their intent gaze upon the corpse. Giotto uses realism in his emotional portrayal between Mary and her deceased son. John s body is pivotal tie between upper and lower halves of painting. The angels writhe in pain to accentuate the pain of Christ s death as an Earthly and Heavenly reality which bridges the two realms in a moment of anguish.
Unlike in Cimabue s depiction of the same subject matter, this is a human representation of mother and child. Giotto clearly departed from Orthodox Christian iconography. His figures look more human and natural. Mary is seated clearly. Her knees are visible through her robe. Her figure is weighty and uncomfortable. Christ is seated on her lap as his own throne. Giotto s humans have a stylistic similarity if you compare Mary and Christ with the saints in The Lamentation. His figures have prominent noses, darkened eye sockets and Giotto uses plenty of gold and haloes in his heavenly scene, which is appropriate for a Madonna and Child. Christ is still too mature for his age, but there is a clear effort toward realism. Typically, children look more like small adults than actual children in Medieval religious art.
Annunciation 1333 C.E. beautifully incorporates the Gothic pointed arches from the altarpiece. The central vase of lilies symbolizes Mary s purity as Virgin mother to Jesus. Gabriel holds an olive branch as a symbol of peace with God. The Holy Spirit is featured as a dove in the center. Martini depicts a rather human response as the angel Gabriel announces in written speech that Mary will have a baby. Her body language illustrates her initial shock and rejection of this possibility. The two undefined saints were placed next to the central scene later and would not have appeared on each side when Martini painted this scene.
Book of Hours of Jeann d Evreux, Queen of France 1325-1328 was a devotional book of prayer and instruction. It was illustrated by Jean Pucelle for Queen Jeann of France. This illustration depicts the Betrayal of Christ by Judas and Gabriel s Annunciation to Mary. Chiaroscuro shaded figures are intensely real Limbourg Brothers Very Precious Hours February Plate 3 1413-16. Limbourg brothers explored Pucelle s techniques. Jean, Pol and Herman worked from 1385-1415. Their book was created for Jean, the Duke of Berry and brother of King Charles VI of France. It explored natural surroundings in addition to the figures represented.
Gregorian chants incorporated two voices. The Eastern Christian world adopted this from the West. A second voice would either sing in unison or contrast. Pérotin (1160-1240) was as Parisian composer and member of Notre Dame School who wrote three and four part works. One voice chanted and others sung in short, quick phrases around the lead vocal. This complemented the Gothic aesthetic of a colorful, light and airy space. The Dies Irae or Day of Wrath was a popular Franciscan hymn from the 1200s used for funeral masses and requiems. It anticipates Day of Judgment and reminds listeners to beware of their eternal fate. The Medieval Motets were 13 th century polyphonic popular songs used outside church services. Their 3 parts fused various elements. They were written in the vernacular. Popular nonreligious songs took on religious significance when they were incorporated into a motet. Instrumental music replaced voices in some polyphonic works. Instrumental parts reinforced lyrics and played in time with sung parts. Common instruments were the harp, psaltery, lyre plucked with fingers. The vielle and rebec were played with a bow. Pipe organs, recorders and bagpipes were used for wind instruments. Chimes, cymbals, bells, tambourines, drums were used for percussion. Isorhythm 14 th century innovation that repeats the same rhythm in close proximity Guillaume de Machaut 1300-1377 was a French poet, priest and composer. He composed the Mass of Our Lady. Unlike previous five part compositions, he unified the five parts and added one final part Ita missa est. This bold move inspired others to rework the Mass including Palestrina and Johann Sebastian Bach. Machaut also wrote 142 polyphonic ballades in vernacular French. Francesco Landini ca. 1325-1397 (right) was an Italian composer. His 150 surviving works account for 1/3 of 14 th century music known to date. He wrote chases where the lyrics of one voice follow the lead voice closely. He also wrote rounds (songs with a similar style as Row, Row, Row Your Boat ).