700 1400 C.E.
During the early Middle Ages, smaller feudal kingdoms had broken up the European peoples. By the time Charlemagne reigned, it had been over two hundred years since Rome fell. There were no political powers to rival the greatness of the Roman Empire. Charles the Great ruled the Franks during a period of European reorganization. Charlemagne was a descendant of Charles Martel, who gained fame for his defeat of the Muslim troops at the Battle of Tours. He was a tall and broad shouldered man with great charisma. Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire on Dec. 25, 800 C.E. This attempt to reunite the religious and political powers in Europe would spread Christianity by military conquest just as it had under Constantine and Justinian. The Saxons were forcibly converted in northern Germany. The Lombards were forcibly converted in Northern Italy. The Slavs adopted Christianity Austria and Hungary. As Charlemagne consolidated his Empire, Christianity followed as a national religion. In the Holy Roman Empire, administrators ruled under Charlemagne s direction throughout Western Europe. At its peak, the Holy Roman Empire covered Belgium, Holland, half of Germany, Austria- Hungary, half of Italy, northeastern Spain and France. This early period in the Holy Roman Empire has been called the Carolingian Renaissance. This included some key developments in European life: 1. Economic improved European-Asian relations and trade, stabilized European currency 2. Educational renewed interest in classical learning, preserved 80% of Latin classical texts, funded preeminent scholars to start universities, supported trivium and quadrivium (grammar, logic, rhetoric) and (arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy) as 7 primary subjects of liberal arts education 3. Religious renewed interest in Biblical learning, greater support for monastic academies 4. Artistic rebuilt historic sites, used Caroline font in illustrated manuscripts
Charlemagne s Holy Roman Empire virtually died with him. Leaders polarized due to the lack of a well defined bureaucratic structure and procedure for choosing an heir. The Carolingian Renaissance similar to Hellenistic expansion by Alexander the Great. Its greatest contribution was cultural not political. Charlemagne s grandsons divided kingdom in 843. Viking raids quickly revealed the weaknesses of Charlemagne s sons and grandsons as military leaders. French and German languages created natural split in the Empire. The Counts and Dukes established by Charlemagne became royal families in Europe who developed their own domains. Feudalism continued the traditions of Germanic and Carolingian loyalty. Land would be given to soldiers to compensate them for service by nobles. Higher ranking officers were given greater portions of land. As an agrarian society, land translated into wealth and influence. A fief is land given by a lord to a vassal. Vassals are military servants who repay the lord for the fief. The number of days of service helped gradual pay back the lord for the fief. The lord agreed to protect the vassal and his possessions in return. The chevalier or knighted class was protected by heredity. Knights rode horseback and fought with their servants for their lords. Strict rules of conduct determined how relationships were structured. Women were to be treated with respect. Courage must be maintained on the battlefield. Peasants must be protected. Most importantly, knights must be loyal to their lords. The top 10% of Europe shared in feudal agreements, which means 90% of Europeans worked the of fiefs (land) owned by vassals (lords). Peasants were the majority of the population who did not own land. Young unmarried women or widows kept property rights but were protected by hired soldiers until they married. This limited privilege kept them from being destitute upon the death of their husband. Nobles protected their family wealth through arranged marriages. Familial wealth typically went to the firstborn sons in order to maintain the elite privilege of nobility.
Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) (left) joined the Cistercian movement in 1112 after his mother died. He became the abbot of his community within 3 years. His works emphasize personal experience and further promoted the individual nature of Christian faith in the Middle Ages. Bernard taught a systematic approach to searching the soul. Christians should progress in experience from self-love to self-knowledge and, finally, to union with God. Bernard preached leading up to the Second Crusade to help Edessa. His legacy includes the founding of 163 monasteries across Europe. Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) was one of the most famous Medieval mystics and a highly respected woman in the Catholic Church. At age 8, her parents gave her over to the care of a nun who lived near the Benedictine monastery at Disenberg. In her mid-thirties, she became the leader of her Benedictine community. In 1147, she moved her nuns to Bingen near the tomb of Saint Rupert. Hildegard wrote treatises on natural sciences, works on medicinal care, hymns, morality plays, and her autobiographical encounters. Know the Ways of the Lord (1146) was an illuminated manuscript (right) that records these supernatural experiences. Hildegard von Bingen wrote Ordo virutum as the first morality play. Musical passages were reserved for the character of Virtue. Satan was believed to be incapable of singing, so parts attributed to Satan were spoken. She wrote a letter to Emperor Frederick I of Germany warning him of divine punishment for his lifestyle. Hildegard claims she was miraculously granted knowledge of the Christian Scriptures instantly through these visions. Her illumination was for the instruction and salvation of others.
Since the Roman period, drama as an art form largely disappeared. Monastic schools encouraged the creativity and musical expression of the jongleurs and minstrels. These songs were put to Biblical literature and a new genre was created known as Liturgical Drama. The Play of Daniel In the 12 th century, The Play of Daniel was written by scholars of Beauvais. It was a Latin drama set to music. The story portrays the life of Daniel, an advisor to Babylonian Kings during the Jewish exile. He is able to interpret dreams, which gains him favor with King Belshazzar. Daniel is an example of faithfulness in his commitment to God despite the Babylonian decree to worship the King alone. Daniel is thrown into the lions den and is miraculously preserved. It probably would be performed around Christmas since Daniel features a prophecy of the birth of Christ. The play is divided into 9 sections: Introduction, Belshazzar s riddle, Daniel is called by the King, Daniel prophesies destruction, Darius the Great arrives, Darius calls for Daniel, Daniel s enemies conspire against him, Daniel is delivered from the lions den by an angel, an angel announces the birth of Christ. The play is accompanied softly by a fiddle with a bow (rebec), a larger stringed instrument, a harp, cymbals, tambourines, bells, and various drums. These would resound through the cathedral due to its amazing acoustics. Morality Plays Everyman was a popular morality play that incorporated elements of drama. Travelling actors would perform for communities using their wagons as stages. Everyman portrays the journey of the soul into the afterlife. God s austerity and judgmental nature instills fear in the audience. Characters are named for their traits as they either help or hinder Everyman on his journey. Everyman understands the temporality of life and seeks direction on this passage beyond death. Knowledge, Five-Wits, Beauty and Discretion help Everyman but cannot save him. Good-Deeds emphasizes the role of service in the Church to help Everyman after death.
Three of the most noted Germanic works are Beowulf, The Song of the Niebelungen and Song of Roland. Each epic story honors warriors as legendary founders and heroes for their courageous acts on the battle field. They are culturally similar to Homer s Iliad and the Aryan Mahabharata. Beowulf was recorded in Old English. The Song of the Niebelungen was recorded in Old German. Song of Roland was recorded in Old French. Hroswitha (935-1002) (right) wrote versions of Roman plays by Terence and one of the earliest Germanic tale of a Faustian theme called Theophilius. The story draws from the oft repeated idea of making a deal with the Devil to gain power and notoriety. She also wrote The Conversion of the Harlot Thaïs. Beowulf is a 3,000 line epic poem about Beowulf s adventures that was first recorded around 700 C.E. Beowulf confronts the monster Grendel. He kills Grendel s mother. He fights a fire breathing dragon. Anglo-Saxons esteem Beowulf as a mythical hero/founder Song of Roland chronicles events in 778 C.E. Charlemagne s rear guard were ambushed upon returning from battle with Muslims. Roland was Charlemagne s nephew. Song of Roland is a 4,000 line epic poem first written in 1100s C.E. after two centuries of oral tradition. It was sung by jongleurs who traveled and performed with lyres. Medieval epic poems illustrate feudal customs like naming swords, shields, and horses. Heroic bloody portrayals were over hyped as history became legend. Clergy participated in battle. In Song of Roland, Archbishop Turpin has a lance and spear. Maces were used by some clergy to get circumvent restrictions on killing. Medieval religion and warfare were intimately mingled as Song of Roland suggests.
Equestrian statue of Charlemagne 9 th c. C.E. (left) attempted to recreate Greco-Roman figurative sculptural realism. Its 10 inch height pales in comparison to the Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius which stands 14 feet tall. The awkward proportions and swollen features of the Emperor and the horse reveal the degree of artistic decay that followed the collapse of the Roman Empire. Illuminated manuscripts were also a major art form in the Carolingian period. The Dagulf Psalter demonstrates the craftsmanship of Carolingian illustration and decorative carved ivory book covers.
Odo of Metz designed the Palatine Chapel in Aachen, Germany in an octagonal shape between 792 and 805. It is modeled after the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna. The mosaic dome represented Heaven and the floor represented Earth. The Emperor s throne has been elevated as a symbolic mediation between Heaven and Earth. The Palatine Chapel attempts to recover some of the past artistic brilliance of the Eastern Roman style.
The Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela was one of most popular Romanesque sites. It held the remains of Saint James, the brother of John, who was martyred in Judea. Christian tradition states James preached in Spain and was buried there after his martyrdom. Romanesque style used stone and Roman arches to create religious structures that a durable and humble. Romanesque means a return to Roman principles of architecture. Romanesque churches were build in a Latin cross shape. They were larger and more expansive than previously designed churches. The abbey of Jumièges 1027-67 C.E. (left) was a noted example of Romanesque design with its stone façade and two 141 foot tall towers. St. Madeleine 1104-32 C.E. (right) has a 90 feet wide nave. Its geometrical symmetry characterizes Romanesque architecture. The Alternating colored voussoir in the arches indicate a possible Muslim influence in this design.
Saint Sernin 1080-1120 C.E. is another great Romanesque Cathedral that provided pilgrims a place to perform their penance. The west façade is rather simple in appearance. It is typical of Romanesque humility with its brick and stone composition and central arched doorways. Saint Sernin has a 377 ft. barrel vaulted nave (center aisle). The tower was enlarged in the 1200s but the church is a Romanesque design. Its floor plan is a Latin cross and the ceiling is supported by arches and pillars. See figure 9-3.
Before Romanesque sculptures, relief sculptures had not been created since Roman times. Romanesque architecture offered a few opportunities to explore this art form once again. In Medieval understanding, door ways represented symbolic passages from Augustine s City of Man to the City of God. The humble exteriors were intentional to heighten the impact of the inner experience inside the cathedral. The tympanum is the semi-circular space above the door way, which is a common space for Romanesque relief sculpture. The archivolts are semi-circular bands above the tympanum. The lintel is horizontal bar below the tympanum. Capitals often depict historical scenes from the life of Christ. The trumeau is the center pillar to support the arch.
Gothic was a label placed on this style since it broke drastically from the Classical ideal. It was an insult given by Renaissance architects and it stuck for hundreds of years. Gothic style was particularly influential in Northern France from 1170-1270. Gothic cathedrals honored Mary and the saints. The church building was a symbol of Mary s womb. They were larger and taller than Romanesque cathedrals. They used a rosary window, pointed arches, rib vaults and stained glass. Their façades were highly decorative. Gothic cathedrals have a more expansive interior with better natural light than Romanesque cathedrals. The Abbey Church of St. Denis 1140-44 C.E. started the Gothic style under the direction of Abbot Suger 1085-1151 C.E. King Louis VII placed Abbot Suger in charge when he left for the Second Crusade, which enabled Suger to innovate a new architectural style without fear of royal scorn. His mystical view of light and beauty influenced the birth of the stained glass window. St. Denis houses relics from the patron saint of France. The pointed arch, rib vault and stained glass were used for first time by Abbot Suger and his execution was so well regarded these features became characteristic of Gothic architecture. Natural light poured through the stained glass and provided a heavenly environment.
CHARTRES CATHEDRAL 1220-1260 Chartres Cathedral houses the tunic of Mary worn when Christ was born. The original cathedral was burned down in a fire in 1194. The community rallied together over the next fifty years to rebuild the cathedral starting with the west façade. The west façade (left) features the Royal Entrance, named for the royal imagery of Old Testament kings and Christ. The ascension of Christ is depicted on the left tympanum. Christ enthroned is featured on the central tympanum. He is surrounded by the four images from the Gospel writers: Matthew (man), Mark (lion), Luke (bull), John (eagle). Mary and Child are featured on the right tympanum. Its two towers were completed at different times which is why they are distinct from each other. The remodeled church has a 122 feet high nave. Its interior is much more unified than St. Sernin since it does not have to rely on pillars to bear the weight of the ceiling. Three levels of architecture make Chartres a wonder to behold. The arcade on the ground floor has pointed arches. The triforium is the shorter middle section with closely spaced pointed arches. The clerestory has tall pointed arches and rose and lancet windows. Its massive ceiling is supported by buttresses which transfer the weight of the ceiling to the foundation. They were a combination of Roman and Arabic arches which proved to be more durable than their predecessors.
STAINED GLASS The windows at Chartres (right) are among the greatest examples. Chartres has 175 stained glass windows, containing over 4,000 figures. Our Lady of the Beautiful Glass depicts Mary as Queen of Heaven and Mother of God. She also is the Seat of Wisdom as Christ sits on her lap. Sainte Chapelle (above) is one of the best displays of stained glass. It was built for King Louis IX of France in 1245-1248. This chapel housed the presumed crown of thorns worn by Christ recovered from the Crusades. The 49 feet high lancet windows on upper story feature over 1,000 stories in stained glass. Stained glass is created through an elaborate process where molten glass was mixed with various metallic substances to create vibrant colors. It serves a contemplative function to illumine images with divine light. Like relief sculptures on the exterior, stained glass were instructional in nature. According to legend, Abbot Suger used sapphires to make blue glass. He believed the windows were channels of God s love. Light and love connected in the person of Jesus. Contemplation of the glass transported worshippers into Heaven. Dante s image of Heaven being a place of light greatly influenced his understanding of stained glass. Hildegard of Bingen also referred to light in the manner of Abbot Suger.
Scholasticism Medieval intellectual pursuits by monks, priests and Catholic scholars focused upon the classical works rediscovered by exchanges with the Arab world. Arab manuscripts of Aristotle caused a stir and initial ban by the Catholic Church. Once the complete works of Aristotle were recovered, there had to be a Catholic response to this new learning. Scholasticism sought means to unite reason and faith within a Catholic framework. The works of Plato and late Stoicism appealed to many since they shared an interest in the immortality of the soul, the reasonable nature of God, and the emphasis upon dualism of the bodily passions and the psycho-spiritual life. Plato s works were virtually lost, but traces of Plato in the second through fifth century Christian theologians peaked interest in his ideas. Medieval Universities The first European universities were established in the 12 th and 13 th centuries C.E. Bologna, Paris, Oxford and Cambridge were the four elite universities founded at this time. Women were excluded from higher education. Around 80 universities were founded during the late medieval period. Students had greater influence in the hiring and firing professors since they were involved in the administration of the school. Poor living conditions and complaints about food were common despite the greater student participation. The medieval curriculum focused on liberal arts divided up into seven areas: the trivium (grammar logic and rhetoric) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music) Degrees in theology, law and medicine were among the earliest. A Bachelor of Arts took 3 to 4 years. A Master of Arts degree enabled graduates to teach or practice medicine. Doctorates were awarded 4 years after the Master s Degree. The entire medieval educational path took 10 to 12 years.
Anselm (1033-1109) was the first great Scholastic figure. He was born on the Italian side of Alps. He is often attributed as the father of Scholasticism. Anselm left home after his mother died and became monk. He served as Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093-1109 and used this premier position in England to promote his theology. Anselm taught a theology of that emphasized faith seeking understanding. Reason and logic actively steer the course of his arguments instead of religious devotion. Anselm wrote Monologion to prove God s existence. He didn t rely on previous sources or arguments, but he developed theories he considered reasonable. He argued in Proslogion that faith in God is greatest conception of thought. Finally his Curs deus homo was the first major exploration about why God would become human through the incarnation of Jesus. Anselm wrote it while in a self-imposed exile. He viewed the argument from God s perspective. Humans have dishonored God by disobedience. God came to exonerate humanity and to restore the dignity of his reputation. Anselm s approach is faced with the challenge to reconcile the conflict between God s honor and mercy. This teaching opens the way for a more relaxed religion of grace. See Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Abelard (1079-1142) was a son of noble in Brittany. He was a charismatic teacher who often challenged other professors and stole their students. Abelard became one of the greatest professors at the esteemed University of Paris. His personal love life made his prestigious academic career suspect. While tutoring the niece of Canon Fulbert at Notre Dame, he fell in love with Heloise. Abelard impregnated her and provoked the wrath of Fulbert after they arranged for a secret marriage. Fulbert had Abelard forcibly castrated to punish him for his sins. Abelard sent Heloise to the convent at Argenteuil and he went to Saint-Denis to live as a monk. Abelard convinced Heloise they should both serve the Church to avoid further discipline. Their son was raised in Brittany by Abelard s family. His teachings on the love of God explained the reason for God becoming a man. The human response is to love God in return. Abelard wrote Sic et Non after being humbled by adultery. It represents one of the first comprehensive expositions of theology as a science. In it, 150 questions to doctrinal issues answered yes or no. Abelard relied upon works of Church fathers to defend his arguments. At the end of his life, Abelard affirmed the reasonable approach to faith held by the great Scholastic thinkers. See Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Thomas Aquinas was the most respected figure in the Scholastic movement. His theology has framed Catholic dogma for the past 800 years. Thomas father was Count Landulf of Aquino. He was sent to school at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino starting at age 5. He later entered the Dominican Order as a teenager, which outraged his father and brothers. Around 20 years old, Thomas studied under Albert Magnus, a great Medieval Catholic professor, in Paris and Cologne. He was a lecturer in Paris, Rome and Naples. Aquinas founded a Dominican school in Naples. Like Anselm, Aquinas held a position of faith seeking understanding. He heavily incorporated Aristotelian thought into his theology. Knowledge is based upon empirical data. The road to reason is knowledge. The road to truth is faith. Aquinas believed reason could point to God. Like Aristotle, Aquinas used a First Cause argument for the existence of God. However, he did not believe in an eternal universe as the Greeks did. Knowledge can be gained through empirical verification in matters of reason. God left ample traces of evidence which can be accessed by the senses to point humans to the logical conclusion of God s existence. Salvation is to do what is internally within one s nature. Aquinas teaches grace is prevenient because it creates change within individuals. Sacraments are means of acquiring God s grace. Virtues are acquired through practice. Aquinas combined aspects of Anselm and Abelard in his theory of the atonement. God sent Christ to restore God s honor. Christ merited salvation through his sacrificial death due to his love and obedience to God the Father. This idea of merit would be key to the role of Christ, Mary and the saints in Catholicism. Aquinas wrote Summa Contra Gentiles as a guide for missionaries traveling to Islamic nations. His greatest work is the Summa Theologica written in his final decade. This monumental work is his crowning achievement that remained incomplete due to his death. It covers 631 questions on various topics of Christian theology and practice. It references the Christian Scriptures, Catholic Fathers, Greek philosophers, Roman philosophers, Jewish rabbinic scholars and Muslim philosophers. The Summa defines Catholic teachings on the nature of God, sin, the nature of Christ, salvation, the Sacraments, and women in the Church.
Saint Francis or Giovanni Bernadone (1182-1226) was the son of an aristocrat. He became a prisoner of war in Perugia after losing a battle for his hometown of Assisi. His conversion was gradual as he worked with the poor during a pilgrimage. Francis father thought he was insane and tried to disinherit him. Francis shed his clothes and vowed to serve the Father God only. Francis worked for a while restoring old chapels. In 1209 C.E., he heard a call to life mission during a mass. Francis took Jesus command literally to sell all and give to the poor. In 1210 C.E., he and 12 companions approached the Pope for approval of their life. Pope Innocent III gave a tentative approval- feared severity of lifestyle. Initially, they called themselves the Minor or Humbler Brethren. He wrote The Canticle of Brother Sun 1224 C.E. Francis had great love for all creation and was known to preach to birds and mammals. His central message focused upon adoration of God, repentance, generosity, and forgiveness. Francis desired to preach to Muslims. He was halted by shipwreck and by illness on an initial missionary voyage. In 1219 C.E., he went on the 5th Crusade to Egypt and preached to the Sultan. Francis died in Portiuncula where he started his work. The Catholic Church proclaimed Francis a saint in 1228 C.E. Clare Affreduccio (1193-1253) was noble woman from Assisi who forsook her wealth. Clare lived her life in simplicity and service as a nun. Although she was a follower of St. Francis, she could become a Franciscan. In 1253 C.E., the Order of the Poor Ladies was endorsed by the Pope.
Dante was a renowned Florentine poet and author. He managed to get an education despite his humble upbringing. Dante was one of the most influential figures in the late Medieval period. Divine Comedy defined Catholic theology of the afterlife until the Reformation. Dante fell in love with a young girl named Beatrice who inspired his love poems. Despite his awkward rejection of her and marriage to another, he remained in love with her. In New Life, Dante broke with convention by writing love sonnets in Tuscan Italian. It was a move similar to the troubadours in France. Florence was in the midst of its emergence as the second most populated city in Europe. It would begin to rival Venice in its impact. Florence was technically part of the Holy Roman Empire, but the great distance from Germany allowed for greater freedom. Trade guilds were key bases of political power. Two political rivals were the Guelphs, loyalists to the Pope, and the Ghibellines, loyalists to the Emperor. The Guelphs divided among themselves into White and Black factions which further complicated Florentine politics. Dante aligned himself with the White Guelphs which resulted in his exile in 1302. On Monarchy was a political work composed between 1310 and 1313, which argued against popular Catholic assertions that ecclesiastical power was greater than political power. His exile gave him ample time to consider such a position. He hoped for a strong emperor to unify Italy. The Pope needed to be concerned about religious matters and stay away from politics. Divine Comedy is his greatest work. It was written during the last decade of Dante s life in an allegorical structure. Every figure, place and event is portrayed in a symbolic manner. Dante uses the hero s quest into the afterlife to instruct Medieval Catholics about the value of love and the dangers of sin. Divine Comedy proceeds from darkness and fear to light and beauty. He uses real names of historical figures throughout his journeys.
Dante s numerology follows Christian ideals. 1. 3 parts of the work are representative of 3 types a. Aristotle s 3 parts of human psyche (reason, will, love) b. Christian soul s 3 stages of salvation(perversity, repentance, grace) c. Divine Trinity (Father, Son, Holy Spirit) 2. 3 canticles divided into 33 cantas + 1 introduction = 100 cantos symbolic of perfection 3. 3 parts of Hell and Purgatory Dante s categorization of sins is influential in Catholic theology. Sins committed determine one s place in Hell. Sins of intellect considered more severe than sins of will. Sins of passion are considered least severe. The poet Virgil is Dante s guide through Hell. Satan Eating and Excreting the Souls of the Damned in Hell (bottom right) illustrates the horror of Dante s vision. Dante embellishes the gory and bloody nature of Satan s realm. Satan is in the center of the Earth where it is icy cold. This is reserves for traitors like Judas, the betrayer of Christ and Brutus and Cassius, the betrayers of Julius Caesar who are being eaten by Satan. Upon passing through Hell, the second canticle features Dante climbing the Mount of Purgatory. This is a place where people are working off their sins in preparation for Heaven. Beatrice meets Dante at the top of the mountain and she leads him into the first two circles of Heaven. The third canticle is a journey through Heaven. Dante depicts it as a place of light and immateriality. It is a circular state of existence with saints and Christians from all ages circled around the light of God. St. Bernard of Clairvaux leads Dante through the rings in Heaven as they approach the center light of God.
Domenico di Michelino s Dante and His Poem 1465 C.E. is an early artistic interpretation of Dante and his major work. Dante holds a copy of Divine Comedy and gestures towards Hell. The parade of humans marching down toward the pit illustrates the natural terror of ending up on the wrong side of religious matters. Purgatory s seven tiered mountain on the left of Dante. The labors of each ring work off the sins remaining for those proceeding up to the top of the mountain. Florence s cathedral represents Paradise on the right of Dante. Brunelleschi s completed dome is featured in the rendition of Florence.