EARLY MAN (WHI.2) Effect of Geography on Hunter- Gatherer Societies (WHI.2a) The life of early hunter- gatherer societies was shaped by the physical environment - Homo sapiens emerged in East Africa between 100,000 and 400,000 years ago - Homo sapiens migrated from Africa to Eurasia (Europe and Asia), Australia, and the Americas - Early humans were hunters and gatherers whose survival depended on the availability of wild plants and animals Hunter- Gatherer Societies Paleolithic Man (WHI.2b) - Early human societies, through the development of culture, began the process of overcoming the limits set by their physical environment Hunter- gatherer societies during the Paleolithic Era (Old Stone Age) - Nomadic (migrated in search of food, water, shelter) - Invented simple stone tools and weapons - Learned how to make and use fire - Lived in clans (small family groups of about 30 people) - Developed oral (spoken) language - Created cave art Neolithic Era New Stone Age (WHI.2c) - The beginning of settled agriculture (including permanent settlements) was a major step in the advance of civilization Societies during the Neolithic Era - Developed agriculture (domesticated plants) = Neolithic Revolution - Domesticated (tamed and raised) animals - Used advanced stone tools and weapons - Lived in permanent settlements - Made pottery to store food - Developed weaving (sewing) skills Archaeological Discoveries (WHI.2d) - Archaeologists continue to find and interpret evidence of early humans and their lives - Archaeologists = scientists who study past cultures by locating and analyzing human remains, settlements, fossils, and artifacts o Fossils = preserved remains of living things (plants or animals) o Artifacts = remains of things that were made by humans (tools, weapons, jewelry, toys) - Archaeologists use scientific tests such as carbon dating to analyze fossils and artifacts - Stonehenge is an example of an archaeological site in England that was begun during the Neolithic and completed during the Bronze Age - Aleppo and Jericho are examples of early cities in the Fertile Crescent studied by archaeologists - Catalhoyuk is an example of a Neolithic settlement currently under excavation in Anatolia
EARLY RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS (WHI.3) - During the New Stone Age, permanent settlements appeared in river valleys and around the Fertile Crescent - River Valleys provided rich soil and irrigation for agriculture, and they tended to be in locations easily protected from invasion by nomadic peoples Locating Ancient River Valley Civilizations (WHI.3a) - Egyptian civilization (Africa) Nile River Valley and Delta - Mesopotamian civilization (Southwest Asia) Tigris and Euphrates River Valleys - Indian civilization (South Asia) Indus River Valley - Chinese civilization (East Asia) Huang He River Valley - Other early civilizations (about 2000 to 500 BC) o Hebrews settled between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River Valley (part of the Fertile Crescent in Southwest Asia) o Phoenicians settled along the Mediterranean coast (part of the Fertile Crescent in Southwest Asia) o Nubia/Kush was located on the upper (southern) Nile River (Africa Development of Social, Political, and Economic Patterns (WHI.3b) - River valleys were the Cradles of Civilization. Early civilizations made major contributions to social, political, and economic progress Development of social patterns - Hereditary rulers (dynasties of kings, pharaohs) - Rigid class system, where slavery was accepted Development of political patterns - World s first organized political states (city- states, kingdoms, empires) - Centralized government (often based on religious authority = theocracy) - Written law codes (Ten Commandments, Code of Hammurabi) Development of economic patterns - Metal tools and weapons (bronze, iron) - Increasing agricultural surplus (better tools, plows, irrigation) - Increasing trade along rivers and seas (Phoenicians) - Development of world s first cities development of the practice of slavery Development of Religious Traditions (WHI.3c) - Religion was a major part of life in early civilizations Development of religious traditions - Polytheism was practiced by most early civilizations - Monotheism was practiced by the Hebrews Judaism (WHI.3c) Origins of Judaism - Abraham = first leader of Jews - Moses = given Ten Commandments - Jerusalem = important city Beliefs, traditions, and customs - Belief in one God (monotheism) - Holy book = Torah (contains written records and beliefs of Jews) - Ten Commandments = laws for moral and religious conduct Spread of Judaism - Exile (banishment from homeland) - Diaspora (scattering of Jewish people from their homeland)
Development of Language and Writing (WHI.3e) - Pictograms (pictures and symbols to represent words and sounds) = earliest written symbols o Hieroglyphics (Egypt) o Cuneiform (Sumer) - Alphabet (Phoenicians) Mesopotamian Civilizations Sumerians - Located in southern Mesopotamia - Made of independent city- states o Ruled by military leaders - First writing system = cuneiform (pictograms) - Built temples called ziggurats - First to put wheels on carts - Created a math system based on the number 60 Akkadians - Sargon I united all of Mesopotamia into one kingdom (centralized power) - First to use bronze weapons Babylonian - Hammurabi = greatest ruler of Babylon - First written law code = Code of Hammurabi Assyrians - Located in Fertile Crescent and Egypt - First to use iron weapons - Assurbanipal was greatest Assyrian ruler o Built great library at Nineveh Chaldeans (Neo- Babylonians) - Nebuchadnezzar was greatest Chaldean ruler o Expanded empire and ruled over Mesopotamia and Levant (Fertile Crescent) o Created the Hanging Gardens of Babylon - Built ziggurats as temples Phoenicians - Established colonies around Mediterranean Sea - Great sailors and traders o Known for their purple dye - Developed the world s first alphabet Hebrews - Settled in the area between the Mediterranean Sea and Jordan River - Established the first monotheistic religion Kush - Located in Africa along the Upper (Southern) Nile River - Became trading partners with Egypt PERSIA (WHI.4a) The Persian Empire was built on earlier Central Asian and Mesopotamian civilizations developed the largest empire in the world Zoroastrianism was the main Persian religion, although other religions were tolerated Characteristics of the Persian Empire - Tolerance of conquered peoples - Development of an imperial bureaucracy - Construction of road system = Royal Road Zoroastrianism - Religion of Persia - Belief in two opposing forces in the universe - Founded by the prophet Zoroaster - Ahura Mazda = God - Zend Avesta = holy text - Monotheism influenced the religions of Judaism and Christianity
INDIA (WHI.4b/c/d) India (WHI.4b) Classical Indian civilization began in the Indus River Valley and spread to the Ganges River Valley, then through the Indian subcontinent. It continued with little interruption because of its geographic location - Physical barriers such as the Himalayas, the Hindu Kush, and the India Ocean protected and isolated India, making invasion difficult - Mountain passes in the Hindu Kush (e.g. Khyber Pass) provided migration routes into the Indian subcontinent - The Indus and Ganges were the most important rivers in the Indian subcontinent - Indus River Valley civilization = Harappa and Mohenjo- Daro The Indo- Aryan people (from modern- day Iran) migrated into the area, creating a structured society (caste system) blended with those of the indigenous people Aryans (Indo- Aryans) - Migrated to the Indus River Valley and asserted dominance - Introduced rigid caste system which influenced all social interactions and choices of occupations During the Golden Age of classical Indian culture, Indian people made significant contributions to world civilization Mauryan Empire - Asoka - Continued political unification of much of India - Contributions: spread Buddhism, free hospitals, veterinary clinics, and good roads Gupta Empire - Golden age of classical Indian culture - Contributions: math (concept of zero), medicine (set bones), astronomy (concept of round earth), new textiles, literature Hinduism (WHI.4c) - Belief in many forms of one major god - Caste system = foundation of Hinduism o Rights and privileges based on occupations - Reincarnation = rebirth based on karma - Karma = knowledge that all thoughts and actions have future consequences - Sacred texts = Vedas and Upanishads - Spread along major trade routes Buddhism (WHI.4d) - Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) in a part of India that is in present- day Nepal - Four Noble Truths (all about suffering) - Eightfold Path to Enlightenment (all about how to escape suffering) - Buddhism became a major faith when Asoka (Mauryan emperor) sent missionaries throughout Asia o Asoka s missionaries and their writings spread Buddhism from India to China and other parts of Asia CHINA (WHI.4e/f) China (WHI.4e) - Chinese culture began around 1500 BC in the Huang He (Yellow) River Valley - China was governed by a succession of ruling families called dynasties. Their rulers were eventually called emperors. - Chinese rulers were considered divine, but they served under a Mandate of Heaven only as long as their rule was just and good. - The Silk Road facilitated trade and contact between China and other cultures as far away as Rome
Contributions of Classical China - Civil Service System (exams for jobs) - Paper - Porcelain - Silk Great Wall of China - Classical China was centered on the Huang He (Yellow) River and was geographically isolated however, invaders began entering China from the north - The Great Wall was built by Qin Shi Huangdi as a line of defense against invasions Impact of Chinese Philosophies (WHI.4f) Confucianism China s social order - Belief that humans are good, not bad - Respect for elders (filial piety) - Code of politeness (still used today) - Emphasis on education - Ancestor worship - Yin and Yang represented opposites Taoism Chinese culture and values - Humility (people should be humble and modest) - Simple life and inner peace - Harmony with nature - Yin and Yang represent opposites Buddhism Chinese forms of Buddhism spread throughout Asia GREECE (WHI.5) Influence of Geography (WHI.5a) - The physical geography of the Aegean Basin shaped the economic, social, and political development of Greek civilization - The expansion of Greek civilization, through trade and colonization, led to the spread of the Hellenic (Greek) culture across the Mediterranean and Black Seas Location and Place - Greece is a peninsula located in the Aegean Sea in Southern Europe near Asia Minor - Located in the basin of the Aegean Sea - Balkan and Peloponnesus peninsulas, close to Europe and Asia Minor - Mediterranean Sea - Access to Black Sea through the Dardanelles and Bosporus Straits - Major city- states: Athens, Sparta, Troy - Macedonia to the north Economic and social development - Limited arable land for agriculture (farming) led to colonization and trade - Access to Mediterranean allowed for great commerce and the spread of Hellenic (Greek) culture through trade - Shift from barter to money economy (coins) Political development - Mountainous terrain led to the development of separate, independent city- states (no united Greek empire) - Greek cities were designed to promote civic and commercial life - Overpopulation and the search for arable land led to colonization throughout the Mediterranean and Black Seas - Polis = Greek city- state (Athens, Sparta, Troy)
Greek Mythology & Religion (WHI.5b) - Greek mythology was based on a polytheistic (many gods) religion that was integral to the culture, politics, and art in ancient Greece - Many of Western civilization s symbols, metaphors, words, and idealized images come from ancient Greek mythology Greek Mythology - Based on Greek polytheistic (many gods) religion - Used to explain natural phenomena (nature, weather, natural disasters), human qualities (why people are the way they are), and life events (births, deaths, sickness) Greek Gods and Goddesses - Zeus (Father of Gods), Hera (Goddess of Marriage), Apollo (God of the Sun), Artemis (Goddess of the Hunt and Wild), Athena (Goddess of Wisdom), and Aphrodite (Goddess of Love and Beauty) - Symbols and images in literature, art, and architecture The Significance of Citizenship and Development of Democracy (WHI.5c) - Classical Athens developed the most democratic system of government the world had ever seen, even though not everyone could participate in decision- making. It became a foundation of modern democracies. - Contrasting philosophies of government divided the Greek city- states of Athens (democracy) and Sparta (oligarchy) Social Structure and citizenship in the Greek polis - Citizens (free adult males) had political rights and the responsibility to participate in government affairs (civic participation) - Women, foreigners (non- Greeks), and slaves had no political rights Athens - Stages in evolution of Athenian government: Monarchy, aristocracy (oligarchy), tyranny, democracy - Tyrants who worked for reform: Draco, Solon - Birthplace of democracy - Origins of democratic principles: Direct democracy, public debate, duties of the citizen Sparta - Oligarchy (rule by a small group) - Rigid social structure - Aggressive society based on militaristic principles focused on military and war - Economy was based on farming (done by slaves) *Competition between Sparta and Athens for control of Greece helped cause the Peloponnesian War Wars of Ancient Greece (WHI.5d) Persian Wars - 499 449 BC - The united Greek city- states defeated the Persian empire and preserved their political independence - Persian Wars united Athens and Sparta against the Persian Empire - Greek victories over the Persians at Marathon and Salamis left Greeks in control of the Aegean Sea and Mediterranean Sea - Athens preserved its independence and emerged as the dominant power in Greece - continued innovations in government and culture o Formed Delian League
Peloponnesian War - 431 404 BC - Caused in part by competition between Athens and Sparta for control of the Greek world Athens and the Delian League vs. Sparta and the Peloponnesian League - Sparta defeats Athens slows the cultural advance of Greece - Political power of Greece is weakened and they are left vulnerable to invasion o Opened door for Phillip II of Macedonia to invade Greece Athens During the Golden Age of Pericles (WHI.5e) Athenian culture, during the Classical Era, became one of the foundation stones of Western civilization Golden Age of Pericles (between Persian and Peloponnesian Wars) - Pericles extended democracy most adult males had equal voice - Pericles had Athens rebuilt after destruction in Persian Wars Parthenon is an example Greek Contributions (WHI.5f) Contributions of Greek culture: - Drama: Aeschylus ( Father of Greek Drama ), Sophocles - Poetry: Homer (Iliad and Odyssey) - History: Herodotus ( Father of History, wrote about Persian Wars), Thucydides (History of Peloponnesian War) - Sculpture: Phidias - Architecture: Types of columns included Doric (Parthenon), Ionic, and Corinthian - Science: Archimedes (levers and pulleys), Hippocrates ( Father of Medicine ) - Mathematics: Euclid ( Father of Geometry ), Pythagoras (Pythagorean Theorem) - Philosophy: Socrates (questioned everything, know thyself ), Plato (The Republic, the Academy), Aristotle (studied/wrote about every subject, tutor for Alexander the Great) Alexander the Great (WHI.5g) - The Macedonian conquest of Greece followed the weakening of the Greek defenses during the Peloponnesian War - Alexander the Great adopted Greek culture and spread Hellenistic influences throughout his extensive empire Phillip II, King of Macedon - Conquered most of Greece Alexander the Great (son of Phillip II) - Established an empire from Greece to Egypt and the Indus River - Extended Greek cultural influence Hellenistic Age - Hellenistic culture = blend of Greek and oriental elements - Spread of Hellenistic culture through trade ROME (WHI.6) Influence of Geography (WHI.6a) - The city of Rome, with its central location on the Italian peninsula, was able to extend its influence over the entire Mediterranean Basin - The Italian peninsula was protected by the sea and the Alps, the arc of mountains to the north Location and Place - Rome Centrally located in the Mediterranean Basin and distant from eastern Mediterranean powers - Italian peninsula - Alps Mountains = protection - Mediterranean Sea = protection, sea- borne commerce (trade access)
Roman Mythology (WHI.6b) Roman mythology, like Greek mythology, was based on a polytheistic religion that was important to culture, politics, and art Roman Mythology - Based on Greek polytheistic religion - Used to explain natural phenomena (nature, weather, natural disasters), human qualities (why people are the way they are), and life events (births, deaths, sickness) Roman Gods and Goddesses - Jupiter (Father of Gods), Juno (Goddess of Marriage), Apollo (God of the Sun), Diana (Goddess of the Hunt and Wild), Minerva (Goddess of Wisdom), and Venus (Goddess of Love and Beauty) - Symbols and images in literature, art, and architecture Many of Western civilization s symbols, metaphors, words, and idealized images come from ancient Roman mythology The Roman Republic (WHI.6c) Even though women, most foreigners (non- Romans living in the Republic), and slaves weren t considered citizens, the Roman Republic made great improvements in the development of representative democracy, which became a foundation of modern democracy. Social Structure in the Roman Republic - Patricians = powerful nobility, wealthy landowners (few in number) - Plebeians = common people (farmers, soldiers, workers), majority of population - Slaves not based on race (usually prisoners of war, debtors, criminals) Citizenship - Patrician and plebeian MEN - Selected foreigners (upper class) - Rights and responsibilities of citizenship: participation in government, taxes, military service Features of Democracy - Representative democracy = Republic (voters elect a representative to make decisions) - Assemblies - Senate (law- making body) - Consuls (2 patricians who replaced king) - Law Code = Twelve Tables Roman Military Domination and the Spread of Roman Culture (WHI.6d) After the victory over Carthage in the Punic Wars, Rome was able, over the next 100 years, to dominate the Mediterranean Basin, leading to the diffusion (spreading) of Roman culture Punic Wars (264 164 BC) - Roman Republic and Carthage were in competition for trade in the Mediterranean Basin - Hannibal = Carthage general who invaded the Italian Peninsula during the 2 nd Punic War - Three wars resulted in Roman victory, the destruction of Carthage, and expanded trade and wealth for Rome Evolution of the Roman Empire and Spread of Roman Culture - Mediterranean Basin (Africa, Asia, Europe, including the Hellenistic world of the Eastern Med) - Western Europe (Gaul, British Isles)
Decline of the Roman Republic (WHI.6e/f) Causes for the decline of the Republic - Spread of slavery in the agricultural system led to food shortage and inflation - Migration of small farmers into cities causing unemployment rates to increase and food production to decrease - Devaluation of Roman currency led to inflation (the rising of prices) - Civil war over the power of Julius Caesar The Roman Republic, in the face of changing social and economic conditions, gave in to civil war and was replaced by an imperial regime, the Roman Empire. The origin and evolution of Imperial Rome - First Triumvirate = Caesar, Pompey, Crassus - Julius Caesar Rise to power, Dictator for Life, assassination - Augustus Caesar (Octavian) civil war, defeat of Marc Anthony, Rome s first emperor - Empire unified and enlarged, using imperial authority and military conquest - Failure to provide for peaceful succession of emperors Pax Romana (WHI.6g) - Augustus Caesar established the Roman Empire by instituting civil service, rule by law, a common currency (money system), and secure trade and travel throughout the Empire. - Following Augustus, the Roman Empire enjoyed 200 years of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana (Roman Peace) The Pax Romana - Two centuries (200 years) of peace and prosperity under imperial rule - Expansion and solidification of Roman Empire, especially in the Near East Economic Impact - Established a uniform system of money, which helped to expand trade - Guaranteed safe travel and trade on roads - Promoted (increased) prosperity and stability Social Impact - Returned stability to the social classes life became more stable for most people - Increased emphasis on the family Political Impact - Created a civil service provided government jobs for the unemployed - Developed a uniform system of law Rise of Christianity (WHI.6h/i) The followers of Jesus spread Christianity throughout the Roman Empire, bringing it into conflict with Roman polytheism and eventually changing Western civilization Origins of Christianity - Had its roots in Judaism - Was led by Jesus of Nazareth, who was thought to be the Messiah - Conflicted with polytheistic beliefs of the Roman Empire Major beliefs of Christianity - Monotheism (belief in one god) - Jesus as the son and the incarnation of God - Life after death (soul goes to heaven or hell) - Holy book = Bible o New Testament = life and teaching of Jesus and early Christians - Christian doctrine was established by early church councils Spread of Christianity - Carried by the Apostles (disciples of Jesus), including Paul, throughout the Roman Empire - Slowed as a result of persecution by Roman authorities (often put to death) - Adopted and legalized by Emperor Constantine
Impact of Christianity on the late Roman Empire - As the Roman Empire declined in the West, the Church in Rome grew in importance, membership, and influence o The Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and made it legal o Christianity later became the official religion of the Empire o The Church became a source of moral authority o Loyalty to the Church became more important than loyalty to the Emperor o The Church became the main unifying force of Western Europe Roman Contributions (WHI.6j) - Conquests and trade spread Roman advancements throughout the Empire - Western civilization was influenced by the cultural achievements of Rome Contributions of the Roman Empire: - Art/Architecture: Pantheon, Colosseum, Forum - Technology: Roads, Aqueducts, Roman Arches - Science: Ptolemy - Medicine: Emphasis on public health (public baths, public water systems, medical schools) - Language: Latin, Romance languages (Spanish, French, Italian) - Literature: Virgil s Aeneid (epic poem about the founding of Rome) - Religion: Roman mythology; adoption of Christianity as the official religion - Law: The principle of innocent until proven guilty (from the Twelve Tables) Decline and Fall of the Empire (WHI.6k) Over a 300- year period, the western part of the Roman Empire steadily declined because of internal and external problems Causes for the decline of the Western Roman Empire - Geographic size difficulty of defense and administration - Economy the cost of defense (keeping a huge Roman army) and devaluation of Roman currency - Military Starting to hire foreigners (non- Romans), resulting less disciplined army - Moral decay People s loss of faith in Rome and the family - Political problems civil conflict and weak emperors and administration - Invasions constant attacks on all borders by Germanic tribes Division of the Roman Empire - Emperor Constantine moves capital to Byzantium in the east and renames it Constantinople - Empire is divided into two halves West (Rome) and East (Constantinople) - Survival of the Western Roman Empire until 476 AD, when it gives in to attacks by Germanic tribes and ceases to have a Roman Emperor - Eastern Roman Empire becomes known as the Byzantine Empire
BYZANTINE EMPIRE (WHI.7) Constantinople (WHI.7a) The capital of the Eastern Roman Empire was changed to Constantinople to provide political, economic, and military advantages Location of Constantinople - Protection of the eastern frontier (better able to protect Rome s eastern territories from Persian threats) - Distance from Germanic invasions in the western empire o Far away from attacks by Germanic tribes made it easier to defend than Rome - Located on a crossroads of trade - Easily fortified (defended) site on a peninsula bordering natural harbors Role of Constantinople - Capital (seat) of Byzantine Empire until it was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 AD - Preserved classical Greco- Roman culture - Center of trade Emperor Justinian (WHI.7b) As the first to codify Roman law, Justinian provided the basis for the law codes of Western Europe Byzantine Emperor Justinian - Responsible for codifying Roman laws = Justinian s Code (basis for most European legal systems) - Reconquered former Roman territories that were lost during the fall of the western part of the Empire - Expansion of trade Under Justinian, the Byzantine Empire reached its height in culture and prosperity Preservation of Greco- Roman Culture - Greek (Eastern) Orthodox Christianity and imperial patronage allowed the Byzantine Empire to develop a unique style of art and architecture - Justinian was able to revive and preserve classical Greco- Roman (Greek and Roman) culture and traditions in the Byzantine Empire Byzantine Art, Architecture, and the Preservation of Greek and Roman Traditions (WHI.7c) Byzantine achievements in art and architecture - Inspiration provided by Christianity and imperial power - Icons (religious images) - Mosaics (made of small pieces of tile of glass) in public and religious buildings - Hagia Sophia (Church of Holy Wisdom) = Byzantine domed church built by Justinian Byzantine culture - Continued flourishing of Greco- Roman traditions by preserving Greek and Roman knowledge o Greek and Roman knowledge preserved in Byzantine libraries - Greek language used in most of Empire (as opposed to Latin in the West) - Greek (Eastern) Orthodox Christianity Split in the Christian Church (WHI.7d) The cultural and political differences between the eastern and western Roman Empire weakened the unity of the Christian Church and led to its division Eastern Church (Eastern Orthodox) - Centered in Constantinople (close to the seat of power after Constantinople became capital) - Use of Greek language in liturgy (church services)
Western Church (Roman Catholic) - Centered in Rome (farther from seat of power after Constantinople became capital) - Use of Latin language in liturgy (church services Division between Western and Eastern Churches - Supreme authority and head of church in west = Pope - Supreme authority in east = Emperor; head of the church = Patriarch - Use of icons in the east - East allowed priests to marry and have families; Priests in west expected to be celibate Influence on Russia (WHI.7e) Byzantine civilization influenced Russian and Eastern European civilizations through its religion, culture, and trade due to their proximity (closeness) in locations Influence of Byzantine culture on Eastern Europe and Russia - Trade routes between Black Sea and Baltic Sea - Adoption of Orthodox Christianity by Russia and much of Eastern Europe - Adoption of Greek alphabet to the Slavic languages by St. Cyril = Cyrillic alphabet - Church architecture and religious art (icons) ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION FROM 600-1000 AD (WHI.8) Rise of Islam (WHI.8a) - The revelations of Muhammad form the basis of the Islamic religion, a monotheistic faith - Muhammad and his followers spread Islam - Islamic traditions and customs developed over centuries and created a distinct Muslim culture Origins of Islam - Muhammad = the Prophet - Mecca and Medina on the Arabian Peninsula = significant early Muslim cities Spread of Islam - Across Asia and Africa, and into Spain - Spread quickly because all Muslims spoke a common language Arabic (the language of the Quran) Major beliefs of Islam - Monotheism (Allah, Arabic word for God ) - Holy book = Quran (Koran) = the word of God (Muhammad s revelations) - Five Pillars of Islam (statement of faith, daily prayers, giving Alms, fasting during Ramadan, Hajj) = moral code of behavior - Acceptance of Judeo- Christian (Jewish and Christian) prophets, including Moses and Jesus Influence of Geography (WHI.8b) - In the first three centuries (300 years) after Muhammad s death, Muslim rule expanded rapidly, overcoming geographic barriers (mountains, deserts), and facilitated by weakened political empires (Byzantine and Persian) - Political unity and the Arabic language facilitated trade and stimulated intellectual activity Geographic influences on the origin and spread of Islam - Diffusion (spreading) along trade routes from Mecca to Medina - Expansion despite great distances, desert environments, and mountain barriers - Spread into the Fertile Crescent, Iran, and Central Asia, facilitated by weak Byzantine and Persian empires (tired from fighting each other)
Geographic influences on economic, social, and political development - Political unity of the first Muslim empire was short- lived disputes (fights) over who should rule the Islamic Empire - Arabic language (language of the Quran) spread with Islam and facilitated trade across Islamic lands - Slavery was not based on race Turning Points in History (WHI.8c) Historical turning points - 622 AD: Muhammad s flight from Mecca to Medina (Hegira) - 680 AD: Sunni/Shi a division (schism) over Muhammad s successor o Sunni = anyone can be Muhammad s successor o Shi a = successor must be direct descendant of Muhammad - Muslim conquest of Jerusalem and Damascus o Damascus made capital during Umayyad Dynasty (661 AD) o Capture of Jerusalem eventually led to Crusades - 750 AD: Islamic capital moved to Baghdad during Abbasid Dynasty (increased Persian influence) - 732 AD: Muslim defeat at the Battle of Tours stopped spread of Islam into Western Europe - Fall of Baghdad to Mongols slowed spread of Islam and shifted center of Islam to Egypt Contributions & Achievements (WHI.8d) Early Islamic civilization was characterized by achievements in science and the arts that transformed the Islamic world and contributed to world civilization Cultural contributions and achievements - Architecture Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem) - Art Mosaics - Arabic alphabet - World s first universities - Translation of ancient Greek, Roman, and Persian texts into Arabic Scientific contributions and achievements - Arabic numerals (adapted from India), including concept of zero - Concept of algebra - Improvements in medicine medical encyclopedias, training hospitals - Expansion of geographic knowledge (astrolabe) THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES 500-1000 AD (WHI.9) Spread and Influence of Christianity (WHI.9a) - The Roman Catholic Church grew in importance after Roman authority declined. It became the unifying force in western Europe - During the Middle Ages, the Pope crowned the Emperors, missionaries carried Christianity to the Germanic tribes, and the Church served the social, political, and religious needs of the people Foundations of early medieval society: - Classical Roman culture - Christian beliefs - Customs of Germanic tribes Influence of the Roman Catholic Church - Secular (Roman) authority declined, which church authority grew - Monasteries preserved Greco- Roman cultural achievements - Missionaries carried Christianity and Latin alphabet to Germanic tribes - Pope crowned (anointed) Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor in 800 AD - Parish (local) priests served religious and social needs of the people
Feudalism (WHI.9b) - The decline of Roman influence in Western Europe left people with little protection against invasion, so they entered into feudal agreements with land- holding lords who promised them protection - Invasions shattered Roman protection over the Empire Feudal society during the Middle Ages: - Fief = castle and lands belonging to lord/noble - Vassals = rent lands from lords - Serfs = peasants who are tied to the land (belong to the lord who owns the land) - Feudal obligations = promises of loyalty, taxes, military service in exchange for land Manorial system during the Middle Ages: - Rigid class structure - Self- sufficient manors Rise of the Franks (WHI.9c) - Frankish kings used military power to expand their territory - The alliance between Frankish kings and the church reestablished Roman culture (Christianity) in Western Europe Age of Charlemagne: - Franks emerged as a force in Western Europe - Pope crowned him Holy Roman Emperor - Power of the church was established in political life - Roman culture was reinterpreted wanted to make New Rome - Most of western Europe was included in the new empire - Churches, roads, and schools were built to unite the empire Invasions and Settlements (WHI.9d) Areas of settlement - Angles and Saxons settled in England - Magyars (from Central Asia) settled in Hungary (Eastern Europe) - Vikings (from Scandinavia) settled in Russia, France, England, and North America Influence of Angles, Saxons, Magyars, and Vikings - Manors with castles provided protection form invaders, reinforcing the feudal system - Invasions disrupted trade, towns declined, and the feudal system was strengthened THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES (WHI.12) Emergence of Nation- States (WHI.12a) European monarchies consolidated power and began forming nation- states in the late medieval period England - William the Conqueror, leader of the Norman Conquest, united most of England following the Battle of Hastings in 1066 - Common law had its beginnings during the reign of Henry II - King John signed the Magna Carta, limiting the King s power - The Hundred Years War between England and France helped define England as a nation - Evolution of Parliament France - Hugh Capet established the French throne in Paris, and his dynasty gradually expanded their control over most of France - The Hundred Years War between England and France helped define France as a nation - Joan of Arc was a unifying force Spain - Ferdinand and Isabella unified the country and expelled Jews and Muslims (Moors) - Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere expanded under Charles V
Russia - Ivan the Great threw off the rule of the Mongols, centralized power in Moscow, and expanded the Russian nation - Power was centralized in the hands of the tsar (czar) - The Orthodox Church influenced unification Conflicts During the High Middle Ages (WHI.12b) Crusades were carried out by Christian political and religious leaders to take control of the Holy Land (Jerusalem) from the Muslims Key events of Crusades - Pope Urban s speech calling for volunteers (promised forgiveness of sins and free pass to Heaven) - The capture of Jerusalem at the end of the First Crusade - Founding of Crusader states throughout Middle East - Loss of Jerusalem to Saladin - Sack of Constantinople by Western Crusaders during the Fourth Crusade Effects of Crusades - Weakened the Pope and Church; strengthened monarchs - Increased trade throughout Mediterranean area and Middle East - Left a legacy of bitterness among Christians, Jews, and Muslims - Weakened the Byzantine Empire Mongol armies invaded Russia, Southwest Asia, and China, creating an empire Mongol armies - Invaded Russia, China, and Muslim states in southwest Asia, destroying cities and countryside - Created largest contiguous empire Ottoman Turks conquered the Byzantine Empire Constantinople - Fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, ending the Byzantine Empire - Renamed Istanbul, became capital of the Ottoman Empire The Black Death Bubonic Plague (WHI.12c) In the fourteenth century, the Black Death (Bubonic plague) destroyed the populations of much of Asia and Europe Impact of the Black Death - Decline in population (1/3 of Europe was killed over 25 million people) - Scarcity of labor work force was less available - Ended feudalism - Decline of Church influence and power - Disruption and slow of trade Church Scholars in the High Middle Ages (WHI.12d) Education was largely confined to the clergy (church officials) during the Middle Ages. The masses were uneducated, while the nobility were more concerned with feudal obligations. Church scholars preserved ancient literature in monasteries in the East and West. Church scholars: - Were among the few who could read and write - Worked in monasteries - Translated Greek and Arabic works into Latin - Made new knowledge in philosophy, medicine, and science available in Europe - Laid the foundation for the rise of universities in Europe
EASTERN HEMISPHERE TRADE PATTERS (WHI.10a/b) During the Medieval Period, several major trading routes developed in the Eastern Hemisphere. These trading routes developed among Europe, Africa, and Asia Major trade patterns of the Eastern Hemisphere from 1000-1500 AD - Silk Road across Asia to the Mediterranean basin - Maritime routes across the Indian Ocean - Trans- Saharan routes across North Africa - Northern European links with the Black Sea - Western European sea and river trade - South China Sea and lands of the Southeast Asia Regional trade networks and long- distance trade routes in the Eastern Hemisphere aided the spreading and exchange of technology and culture between Europe, Africa, and Asia Goods - Gold from West Africa - Spices from lands around the Indian Ocean - Textiles from India, China, the Middle East, and later Europe - Porcelain from China and Persia - Amber from the Baltic region Technology - Paper from China through the Muslim world to Byzantium and Western Europe - New crops from India (like those for making sugar) - Waterwheels and windmills - Navigation compass from China, lateen sail from Indian Ocean Ideas - Spread of religions across the hemisphere o Buddhism from China to Korea and Japan o Hinduism and Buddhism from India to Southeast Asia o Islam into West Africa, Central and Southeast Asia - Printing and paper money from China RENAISSANCE IN EUROPE (WHI.13) Economic Foundations (WHI.13a) - The Crusades stimulated trade by introducing Europeans to many new goods and products - Trade promoted frequent contact with the Byzantine and Muslim Empires - New economic institutions developed (banks, etc.) Economic effects of the Crusades - Increased demand for Middle Eastern products - Stimulated production of goods to trade in Middle Eastern markets - Encouraged the use of credit and banking Important economic concepts - Church rule against usury (borrowing money) and the banks practice of charging interest helped to secularize northern Italy - Letters of credit served to expand the supply of money and speed up trade - New accounting and bookkeeping practices (use of Arabic numerals) were introduced
Rise of Italian City- States (WHI.13b) - Increased wealth from European trade with the Middle East led to the rise of Italian city- states. Wealthy merchants became active civic leaders Florence, Venice, and Genoa - Had access to trade routes connecting Europe with Middle Eastern markets - Served as trading centers for the distribution of goods to northern Europe - Were initially independent city- states governed as republics Machiavelli s The Prince - observed city- state rulers of his day and produced guidelines for getting and keeping power by absolute rule - An early modern how- to book for rulers - Supported absolute power of the ruler - Maintains that the end justifies the means - Advises that one should do good if possible, but do evil when necessary Artists of the Renaissance (WHI.13c) The Renaissance produced new ideas that were reflected in the arts, philosophy, and literature. Patrons, wealthy from newly expanded trade, sponsored works, which glorified their city- states in northern Italy. Education became increasingly secular. - Medieval art and literature focused on the Church and salvation; Renaissance art and literature focused on individuals and worldly matters, along with Christianity Renaissance artists and writers - Leonardo da Vinci Mona Lisa and The Last Supper - Michelangelo David, La Pieta, Moses, ceiling of the Sistine Chapel - Raphael School of Athens, Virgin Madonna - Petrarch Sonnets, humanist scholarship Humanism - Celebrated the individual - Stimulated the study of Greek and Roman literature and culture - Was supported by wealthy patrons Northern Renaissance (WHI.13d) With the rise of trade, travel, and literacy, the Italian Renaissance spread to northern Europe. The art and literature changed as people of different cultures adopted Renaissance ideas Northern Renaissance: - Growing wealth in Northern Europe supported Renaissance ideas - Northern Renaissance thinkers combined humanist ideas with Christianity - The movable type printing press and the production and sale of books (Gutenberg Bible) helped spread ideas Northern Renaissance artists and writers - Erasmus The Praise of Folly (1511) - Sir Thomas More Utopia (1516) - Northern Renaissance artists portrayed both religious and secular subjects EMPIRES OF THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE (WHI.10) Japan (WHI.10c) Location and Place - Mountainous Japanese archipelago (four main islands) - Sea of Japan was between Japan and Asian mainland - Proximity (close) to China and Korea Influence of Chinese Culture Japanese cultural development was influenced by proximity to China - Writing - Architecture - Buddhism Shinto - Ethnic religion unique to Japan - Importance of natural features, forces of nature, and ancestors - State religion worshipping the emperor - Coexistence with Buddhism
African Kingdoms (WHI.10d) - African civilizations developed in sub- Saharan west and east Africa - Trade brought important economic, cultural, and religious influences to African civilizations from other parts of the Eastern Hemisphere - States and empires flourished in Africa during the medieval period, including Ghana, Mali, and Songhai in west Africa, Axum in east Africa, and Zimbabwe in southern Africa Axum - Location relative to the Ethiopian Highlands between the Nile River and Red Sea - Christian kingdom Zimbabwe - Location between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers and the Indian Ocean coast - City of Great Zimbabwe was the capital - The empire was prosperous due to trade West African Kingdoms - Location of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai empires near the Niger River and the Sahara Desert - Traded their gold for salt along the trans- Saharan trade routes - City of Timbuktu became a center of trade and learning - Islam became the dominant religion THE AMERICAS (WHI.11) The Mayan, Aztec, and Incan civilizations emerged in South America, Central America, and Mexico Mayan civilization - Located in the Mexican and Central American rain forest - Main city = Chichen Itza - Group of city- states ruled by a king - Economy based on agriculture and trade - Polytheistic religion built pyramids to honor their gods Aztec civilization - Located in the hot and dry plains of central Mexico - Major city = Tenochtitlan - Ruled by an emperor - Economy was based on farming - Polytheistic religion based on warfare built pyramids to honor their gods Inca civilization - Located in the Andes Mountains of South America - Major city = Machu Picchu - Ruled by an emperor descended from the Sun God - Economy based on high- altitude farming - Polytheistic religion - Built extensive road system throughout their empire Contributions of the Mesoamericans - Developed calendar systems - Advanced math techniques allowed them to be excellent builders - Developed sophisticated writing systems