THE MIDDLE AGES FROM 750 TO 1400 Feudalism and the Commercial Revolution History of Politics and Economy: Book II CONTENTS List of Tables, Figures, Photos and List of Maps xiii-xiv To the Readers xv-xvi Introduction to 1 Chapter I. Politics and Religion 5 1. The Early Middle Ages from 750 to 1000 2. The High Middle Ages from 1000 to 1300 The Catholic Church: Reform and Growth; The Seljuk Turks and the Crusades; The Emergence and Growth of the European Kingdoms 3. The Late Middle Ages from 1300 to 1400 Chapter II. Economy and Society 143 1. Population and Agriculture in the Middle Ages 2. Lordship and Community in Medieval Europe 3. Industry and Technology in the Middle Ages 4. Trade and Money and Banking in the Middle Ages 5. Economic Organization and Policies in the Middle Ages Chapter III. Political Philosophy 351 1. Beginning of Medieval Political Philosophy 2. Formation of Christian Political Philosophy 750-1150 3. Medieval Political Philosophy in Islam and Judaism 4. Christian Political Philosophy in the Thirteenth Century 5. Christian Political Philosophy in the Fourteenth Century 6. Medieval Political Ideas by Principles Chapter IV. Economic Thought and Other Intellectual Developments 523 1. Private Property Rights and Wealth 2. Money, Trade, Just Price and Just Wage 3. The Idea of Usury and Interest Rates; 4. Medieval Economic Thought in Islam 5. The Rise of European Universities in the Middle Ages 6. Medieval Science and Literature: The Dawn of the Humanism Chapter V. Summary and Conclusion 633 Index of Persons and Places and Index of Subjects 701 vii
Chapter I. Politics and Religion in the Middle Ages 1. The Early Middle Ages from 750 to 1000 9 The Rise of Carolingians; Pepin III and Charlemagne; The Collapse of the Carolingian Empire; Vikings, Magyars, and Muslims; The Carolingian Church and Kingship; Italy, Spain, and British Isles; The Byzantine World; Slavonic States and the Bulgars; Islam and the Abbasid Dynasty; Islam in the West; Christianity in Conflict (750-1000) 2. The High Middle Middle Ages from 1000 to 1300 47 2-1. The Catholic Church: Reform and Growth 49 Reform of the Catholic Church; The Roman Catholic Church (1095-1300); The Religious Orders (1095-1300); Anti-orders and Intolerance 2-2. The Seljuk Turks and the Crusades 65 The Seljuk Turks; Causes of the Crusades and Mobilization; The First Crusade (1095-9); The Second Crusade (1145-9); The Third Crusade (1189-92); The Fourth Crusade (1202-4); The Collapse of the Crusades and their Results 2-3. The Emergence and Growth of the European Kingdoms 83 British Isles; France; Spain; Italy; Germany; Byzantium; Russia and the Mongols; The Balkans and the Border States 3. The Late Middle Ages from 1300 to 1400 105 The Black Death and Its Impact; The Hundred Years War, 1337-1453; Crisis in Towns, Peasant Uprisings, and Urban Rebellions; Political Instability and the Ottomans; The Decline of the Medieval Church Endnotes and Suggestions for Further Reading 131 viii
Chapter II. Economy and Society in the Middle Ages 1. Population and Agriculture in the Middle Ages 145 Population in Europe (500-1500); The Evolution of Agricultural Technique; Agricultural Conditions of Medieval Europe; The Demand Structure (1000-1500) 2. Lordship and Community in Medieval Europe 173 Manorialism; Feudalism; The Community of Medieval Villages; Medieval Urban Communities 3. Industry and Technology in the Middle Ages 193 Medieval Industry and Its Trends; The Woolen Industry; Medieval Mining and Metallurgy; Building in Stone 4. Trade and Money and Banking in the Middle Ages 215 4-0. Trade and Industry under the Later Roman Empire in the West 218 4-1. Byzantine Trade and Industry 223 Restructuring, Recovery and Controlled Expansion; The Age of Accelerated Growth; The Decline of Trade Industry 4-2. The Trade of Medieval Europe, the North 241 The Trade in General; The Age of Trade Expansion; The Age of Trade Contraction 4-3. The Trade of Medieval Europe, the South 253 The First Five Hundred Years; The Age of Commercial Revolution; The Waning of the Middle Ages 4-4. Asia, Africa and the Trade of Medieval Europe 267 Early Islamic Trade; The Primacy of Egypt; Muslim Trade in the Far East; Trade of Turkey, Iraq and Iran; Muslim Trade in Africa in the Middle Ages 4-5. The Trade in Medieval Eastern Europe 279 Long-distance Trade in Central and Eastern Europe; Bohemia and Silesia; Trade in Great Poland, Pomerania, Prussia and Mazovia; Trade in Russia 4-6. Coinage and Currency and Emergence of Merchant Banks 293 The Silver Penny or the Denier; The Commercial Revolution and Currency; Money of Account, Silver Famine, and Copper Coinage; Merchant Banking 5. Economic Organization and Policies in the Middle Ages 307 Organization of Trade and Markets and Fairs; The Economic Policies of Towns; The Guilds and their Influence on Economy; The Economic Policies of Governments; France and England, The Low Countries, The Baltic Countries, The Italian and Iberian Peninsulas Public Finance and Credit: Northwestern Europe Endnotes and Suggestions for Further Reading 333 ix
Chapter III. Political Philosophy in the Middle Ages 1. Beginning of Medieval Political Thought 355 Foundation of Medieval Political Thought; Byzantine Political Thought; Latin Fathers Ambrose, Augustine, Gregory, Pseudo-Dionysius The Barbarian Kingships and the Papacy 2. Formation of Christian Political Thought and Philosophy, 750-1150 373 Monarchical Government, Law, and Society; Carolingian Political Ideas; European Intellectual Culture in the Ninth Century; John Scotus Eriugena; The Problem of Universals; St. Anselm of Canterbury; The Twelfth Century 3. Medieval Political Philosophy in Islam and Judaism 403 3-1. Islam: Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-kindi; Abu Nasr al-farabi; Avicenna; 405 Al-Ghazzali; Avempace or Ibn Bajjah; Averroes or Ibn Rushd 3-2. Judaism: Saadya ben Joseph; Isaac Israeli; Judah Halevi; 409 Moses Maimonides; Kabbalah; Levi ben Gerson or Gersonides 4. Christian Political Philosophy in the Thirteenth Century 413 4-1. William of Auvergne, Robert Grosseteste and Alexander of Hales; 415 St. Bonaventure; St. Albert the Great 4-2. St. Thomas Aquinas: Philosophy and Theology; Principles of Created Being; 426 Proofs of God s Existence; The Nature of God; Creation; Psychology; Epistemology; Moral Theory; Political Philosophy 4-3. Latin Averroism; Franciscan Roger Bacon; Giles of Rome and 446 Henry of Ghent, John of Paris; John Duns Scotus 5. Christian Political Philosophy in the Fourteenth Century 461 William of Ockham; Ockham s Political Philosophy The Ockhamist Movement; Marsilius of Paduia; Speculative Mysticism 6. Medieval Political Ideas by Issues and Principles 489 The Idea of Law; Property and Lordship; The Origin and Purpose of Political Authority; The Individual and the Community; The Structure of Government in the State; The Structure of Authority in the Church; The State and the Church Endnotes and Suggestions for Further Reading 507 x
Chapter IV. Economic Thought and Other Intellectual Developments 1. Private Property Rights and Wealth 529 Private Property and Communal Rights Property and Solutions Attitude to Poverty and Wealth 2. Money, Trade, Just Price and Just Wage 539 Thought of Money Weight-Measure-Coinage The Mercantile System Just Price and Just Wage 3. The Idea of Usury and Interest Rates 549 The Nature of Usury The Theory of Interest 4. Medieval Economic Thought in Islam 559 Islamic Prohibitions, Ethics and Norms Economic Thought of Ibn Al-Ghazali Economic Thought of Ayatullah Taleghani 5. The Rise of European Universities in the Middle Ages 569 The Transmission of Knowledge Rising Patterns of Universities Authorities, Management, and Teachers Students and Career of Graduates Four Faculties of Learning 6. Medieval Science and Literature: The Dawn of Humanism 587 Medieval Science and Technology The Revival of Medieval Medicine Natural Philosophers Latin Revival in History and Literature The Dawn of Humanism: Dante Alighieri; Francisco Petrarca or Petrarch Giovanni Boccaccio; and Geoffrey Chaucer Endnotes and Suggestions for Further Reading 621 xi
Chapter V. Summary and Interdisciplinary Conclusion 1. A Study of History, Books VII to XII: Arnold J. Toynbee 635 Book VI. Universal States 635 Book VII. Universal Churches 641 Book VIII. Heroic Ages 647 Book IX. Contacts between Civilizations in Space 651 Book X. Contacts between Civilizations in Time 662 Book XI. Laws and Freedom in History 669 Book XII. The Prospects of the Western Civilization 675 2. Summary 683 Politics and Religion Economy and Society Political Philosophy Economic Thought The Decay of the Middle Ages 3. Conclusion 693 Legacy of the Middle Ages Interactions between Politics and Economy Relations between Theory and Practice Endnotes and References 698 Photo 0-0-0. Castles of the Middle Ages Source: https://encrypted-tbn1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:and9gct1ts7zlhng5eguybqhyx8n- XR2_Qey2NrxkT1F2-PvXV_48XEOhw xii
LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, AND PHOTOS Photo I-0-0. Castles of the Middle Ages Photo I-0-1. Pope Gregory VII and Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, 1077 Photo I-0-2. Great Battles in the Middle Ages Photo I-0-3. The Church in the Early Middle Ages Photo I-1-1. Coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III on December 25, 800 Photo I-2-1. The Crusades Photo I-2-2. Expulsion of the Albigensians from Carcassone in 1209 Photo I-3-1. The Flagellant Movement Photo I-3-2. The Hundred Years War (1136-1453); Photo II-0-1. Middle Ages Manor Figure II-0-1. The Aristocracy and Middling Groups of Britain in the Middle Ages Figure II-1-1. The Manorial System in the Middle Ages Photo II-1-1. Medieval Ploughing in the Fourteenth Century Table II-1-1. Population Estimates in Million at Specified Times, A.D. 500-1500 Figure II-2-1. Feudalism and Government Photo II-3-1. Mons Meg, a Medieval Bombard, at Edinburgh Castle, Scotland Photo II-3-2. Watermill of Braine-le-Chateau, Belgium, 12 th Century Figure II-3-1. A Furnace with Bellows, 16 th Century Photo II-4-1. Medieval Trade Fairs Photo II-4-2. Exchange of Trade by Land Routes in the Middle Ages Photo II-4-3. Researchers Trace Origin of Global Fish Trade in Medieval London Photo II-4-4. Spice Trade from Cochin, India in the Middle Ages Photo II-4-5. The North-Eastern Frontiers Medieval Europe Photo II-4-6. Retail Banking Medieval Style Photo II-5-1. Medieval Wine Merchants, Champagne Fairs Photo II-5-2. Medieval Ship Koga 1350; Photo II-5-3. View of Genoa on a painting from 1482 Photo III-0-1. Synthesis of the Aristotelian Philosophy and Christian Theology Photo III-0-2. Philosophy Seated between the Seven Liberal Arts Photo III-1-1. King Clovis A.D. 496, The First Christian Babarian King Photo III-2-1. Medieval Studies; Photo III-2-2. Charlemagne: Coronation by Leo III, 800 Photo III-2-3. Charlemagne and the Scholars Photo III-2-4. Reconstruction of Charlemagne s School at Aachen Photo III-3-1. Medieval Jewish Philosophy Photo III-3-2. Islamic Art and Culture: the Venetian Perspective Photo III-4-1. Summa Theologica by Thomas Aquinas Photo III-4-2. Christian Thinkers in Science Photo III-5-1. The Philosophical Ideas of William of Ockham Photo III-5-2. Hulme Frederick William at Ockham Surrey in Summer Photo III-6-1: Harun al-rashid receiving a delegation of Charlemagne in Baghdad Photo III-6-2. Three Philosophers: Islamic, Jewish, and Christian Photo IV-0-1. Medieval University Classroom Photo IV-0-2. Economy in England in the Middle Ages Photo IV-1-1. The Landscape around Leeds Castle in England since the 13 th Century Photo IV-2-1. Medieval Coin; Photo IV-2-2. Just Price in the Middle Ages Photo IV-3-1. Tolerance of Usury; Photo IV-3-2. Modern Usury & the Failure of Christian Ethics Photo IV-4-1. Measuring the Medieval Islamic Economy Photo IV-4-2. Turkomen on the Silk Road with Camels Photo IV-6-1. The Mythical Conflict between Science and Religion Photo IV-6-2. Dante s Divine Comedy in the Late Middle Ages Photo IV-6-3. A Tale from the Decameron; Photo IV-6-4. Canterbury Pilgrims Photo V-0-1. Medieval Commercial Revolution; Photo V-2-1. The Decay of the Middle Ages xiii
LIST OF MAPS Map I-1-1. Europe at the Death of Charlemagne, 814 Map I-1-2. The Merovingian Dynasty: Francis Expanded from Austrasia Map I-1-3. Invasions of Vikings, Magyars, and Muslims, 9 th -10 th Centuries Map I-1-4. Political Map of Italy in 1000 Map I-1-5. Spain in 930 Map I-1-6. The British Isles about 802 Map I-1-7. The Byzantium Empire in 867 Map I-1-8. Slavic Tribes from 7 th to 9 th Centuries in Europe Map I-1-9. The Early Middle Balkans in 900 Map I-1-10. The Abbasid Caliphate, 750-1258 Map I-2-1. High Middle Ages Europe and Mediterranean Region, 1190 Map I-2-2. Medieval Jewish Migration Map I-2-3. Seljuk Sultanate, 1040-1120 Map I-2-4. The Crusades, 1096-1204 Map I-2-5. Route of the First Crusade through Asia Map I-2-6. The Crusader States after the First Crusade, 1135 Map I-2-7. The Mediterranean World after the Second Crusade in 1173 Map I-2-8. The Partition of the Byzantine Empire into the Latin Empire after 1204 Map I-2-9. England and France in the Twelfth Century Map I-2-10. Iberian Peninsula: Christian Reconquest, 1210 Map I-2-11. The Holy Roman Empire, 1250 Map I-2-12. Eastern Europe in 1168 Map I-2-13. The Mongol Empire before 1259 Map I-2-14. Mongols and Turks Threaten the Byzantine Empire, 1300 Map I-3-1. The Hundred Years War (1136-1453) Map I-3-2. Origin of Plague in Eleventh Century Asia Map I-3-3. The Black Death, Europe 1347-51 Map I-3-4. Italian City States in 1300s Map I-3-5. Great Schism: Latin West and Greek East, 1054 Map I-3-6. The Western Schism (1378-1147) Map II-0-1. Trade Routes in the High Middle Ages Map II-4-1. Main Medieval Trade Routes Map II-4-2. The Byzantine Empire under Manuel Comnenus, 1180 Map II-4-3. The Trade Routes of the Byzantine Empire, 1028 Map II-4-4. Main Mediterranean and Black Sea Routes in Medieval Times Map II-4-5. Medieval Silk Road Map II-4-6. Medieval Sea-Trading Routes from China to the East Coast of Africa Map II-4-7. Sri Vijaya, 650-1377 Map II-4-8. The Trans-Saharan Gold Trade, 7 th -14 th Century (Left) Map II-4-9. The Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula (Right) Map II-4-10. Europe in around 1360 Map II-4-11. The Varangian Trade Routes, 9-11 th Century Map II-4-12. Poland, Lithuania, Pomerania, and Prussia, 1377-1434 Map II-4-13. Golden Horde, 1237-1502 Map II-5-1. European Trade in the Fifteenth Century Map III-1-1. Early Middle Ages (500-1000): Barbarian groups spread throughout the west Map IV-0-1. Medieval Trade Routes: Arabia a Crossroads Map IV-1-1. A Medieval Manor Map IV-5-1. Medieval Universities, Europe xiv