Part 2: Case Studies: Sudan: Colonial Experience Nov. 19-23 (Part 1) Nov. 19
Neo-Mahdism Condominium agreement quickly generated renewed resistance in name of The Mahdi : Neo-Mahdism Awad Al-Sid Al-Karsani, The Establishment of Neo- Mahdism in the Western Sudan, 1920-1936 (1987) [Additional Readings] - not recent but remains the best focused analysis of what interests us here: evolution of Muslim Society in context of Colonial Rule
Neo-Mahdism The resurrection of the Mahdist movement in the [early] twentieth century following the crushing defeat of the Mahdist state by the Anglo-Egyptian re-conquest of Sudan [1898] has been one of the most extraordinary features of modern Sudanese politics, as well as a unique form of Islamic revival. [Al-Karsani]
Emergence of Neo-Mahdism Long Difficult Battle against Mahdism -- British wary of resurgence ( in Sudan,rest of West Africa) But: - WWI, Ottoman Sultan declared jihad against Allies - urged Muslims everywhere including Africa -- to rise up against British and French
Emergence of Neo-Mahdism British saw opportunity in Sudan to counter threat: -19 th century Mahdism had been strongly anti-turkish, so - encouraged Abd al-rahman (son of Mahdi) to generate active following in name of Mahdism
Abd al-rahman al-mahdi in London, 1919
Emergence of Neo-Mahdism Abd al-raham s neo-mahdism : - was peaceful, intended to support British regime [by definition, opposite of Father s Mahdism] - collaborative role would assure him leadership (as in other British protectorates) - abandoning revolutionary political aims but building on father s religious goals
Emergence of Neo-Mahdism Difficult balancing act: - distrusted by British (in spite of official support ) - presence of competing Islamic leaders: - the holy men -alternative sufi orders
Emergence of Neo-Mahdism The Faki holy men: - individuals embracing wide variety of Mahdist, other millenarian beliefs Influence local: - inspired small-scale resistance to British
Emergence of Neo-Mahdism Many believed in hadith that predicted the World had a lifespan 1000 years from time of Prophet Mohamed, with a century being added for each Caliph. But the theory held that all the prophesied changes would occur in the last 100 years: the coming of the Dajjal [the Anti-Christ] and the second coming of al-nabi Isa [Jesus Christ] who will lead the world to Islam. [from al-karsani, Neo-Mahdism ]
Emergence of Neo-Mahdism For many, destruction of Mahdi state by British meant arrival of Anti-Christ the British - others believed Nabi Isa (Jesus) was still to come - yet others felt he was present but had not yet revealed himself (e.g. 1924 rumour spread that he was here on earth, would appear shortly)
Emergence of Neo-Mahdism Some denied validity of Muhamed Ahmed as the Mahdi altogether: - consequently, the Mahdi was yet to appear and - the British were foreigners but not the anti-christ (who by definition could only follow the Mahdi) But increasingly, it was said that: Nabi Isa has already arrived and revealed himself -- in the person of Abd al-rahman al-mahdi
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime Ideas spread rapidly: - charismatic faki, illiterate peasants: volatile combination - overtly used to give form to anti-colonial resistance Darfur one example: - faki attacked Colonial taxes (head, hut, sanitation) - previously people had paid only nominal Islamic tithe (zakat) to local leaders; responded positively -for faki: about lost (personal) revenue, influence
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime British worried about these independent holy men: - encouraged Abd al-rahman to send disciples into western areas where faki were active (Kordofan, Darfur) to calm situation - local administrators concerned: saw Abd al-rahman, followers becoming more radicalized in process rather than other way around!
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime Western Sudan Regions seen as dangerous by British: - instead of inhibiting local faki, Neo-Mahdists built support (1920s)
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime Faki using dreams, visions to legitimate claim that al- Rahman was Nabi Isa [just as Kalipha, other students had done in 1870s for the Mahdi ] -reported/rumoured: al-rahman employed fakis to write on his behalf to various parts of the country - exhorting people to follow the true religion - telling them to be ready for the day of justice - the end of the world as we know it is at hand
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime Fear of foreigners added to British insecurity 1920s- 1930s: - other West Africans believed to be encouraging anticolonial fakis - restricted from moving about in rural areas - moved to towns under surveillance - 1922 Ordinance: allowed for expulsion foreigners: eg Mauritanians; Fulani from Nigeria, Mali, Niger)
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime Believed some from Egypt, Syria, Arabia, Turkey were anti-british foreign agents - agent of Mohamed Bello (Nigeria) in Sudan: accused of stirring up Tijaniyya believers - fear of relations with international network of Tijaniyya: - brotherhood openly resistant to British authority [will return to issue in French context with Case Study: Senegal ]
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime Tijaniis complicated group, made up of: - those who fled from French destruction Umarian Caliphate [in Mali have not discussed] - those who left Qadiriyya-influence of Sokoto Calipate - those who left British-influence of Protectorate (Nigeria) - clerics/scholars (in general)
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime Largest population in Darfur: - only formally incorporated into Condominium 1916 - for first time, in position to compete for power, influence with Mahdists - many supported local fakis in resisting British (political, social, taxation): retained Tijani affiliation - shared belief that the Mahdi had not yet arrived
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime Competing Influences: - Sokoto dynasty: recognized Sudanese 19 th c. Mahdi st state - accused Tijanis of factionalism: [their] Practices are against the normal behaviour of the people. They alone perform prayers by adopting the habit of raising their hands before and after kneeling to prayers - orthodox Mahdists called them heretics: to be excluded from the main body of the community'.
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime Tijani-supported resistance repeatedly failed: influence Mahdists, pro-mahdists grew - as more Tijani accepted Abd al-rahman s religious charisma was extension his father s 19 th century jihad, tied into larger international jihad movement - al-rahman telling followers to await until he gave order for jihad - growing number propagated Abd al-rahman's cause
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime 1925: Tijani qadi observed that, [this] conversion was caused by the spread of alleged rumours that Abd al-rahman al-mahdi was 'the Nabi Isa and the day of his appearance has become near'. [there is an] abundance of white arms [knives] in their hands as well as [a] large number of horses
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime 1926: Representative of Education Department toured Darfur, found that: the majority of the people here, about 75% of them, are Mahdists, the remainder of different tarikas [sects]... 10 % of them believe that Abdel Rahman is to be Nebi Isa whilst the others respect him as the son of the Mahdi.
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime British Reaction: - attempted to co-opt leading Tijani scholars, faki to resist al-rahman s visions, claims - reversed policy re: Abd al-rahman s agents: -1923 banned from Kordofan - 1926 from Darfur
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime Administration assured people that new policy, would not 'prevent anyone from following the tariqa of Sheikh Abdel Rahman for religious purposes but intends to put a stop to the misuse of the name of the Mahdi by fakis and mandubs of bad character for seditious purposes'.
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime World-wide Depression of 1930s defeated attempts: - lowered price of gum arabic (major export of Western regions) - rural population unable to pay taxes - local ( native ) administrators mostly Tijanis, used harsh measures to force payments - taxes in arrears.
Neo-Mahdism and Colonial Regime Locals expressed dissatisfaction by spreading story that: the Tijani, the members of the ' Ushur committees [from Arabic ashra - ten, reference to zakat, tax of 1/10] and those who propagate the coming of another Mahdi are all in the everlasting [Hell] Fire'. - balance in Western regions shifting strongly towards neo- Mahdism.
Economics, Labour and Neo-Mahdism Colonial Politics also shaped by central economic issue: Labour - How to assure sufficient production (agricultural) necessary to provide tax base and respect 20 th c. commitment to abolishing slavery? - British looked to two solutions, both having significant political consequences (short- and long-term)
Economics, Labour and Neo-Mahdism (1) Mahdi Family economy: - repayment for loyalty in WWI: Abd al-rahman kept property on Abba island (where others lost rights to land): developed large estates - provided free food, lodging and spiritual guidance for followers: in return for their labour [minimal pay] - many West Africans (especially Northern Nigerians) attracted: model of Muslim Brotherhood developing - importantly: included large numbers Nigerian freedslaves
Economics, Labour and Neo-Mahdism Later, jihad itself characterized as peaceful (economic) effort: - Sudanese Westerners encouraged to fulfill religious expectations by moving to Aba Island, working on Mahdist estates. [similar to Mourids, Case Study Senegal] al-karsani concludes: Neo-Mahdism implicitly connected the economics of neo-mahdism to the economics of Colonial rule
Economics, Labour and Neo-Mahdism (2) Slavery: - slaves part of Sudan society (Arab and Nubian) for centuries Turkish (Egyptian) rule in 19 th c. under Mohamed Ali Pasha: - institutionalized trade from southern parts of Sudan, even further inland - many absorbed into his own imperialistic army, others entered commercial trade to Ottoman Empire
Economics, Labour and Neo-Mahdism Mohamed Ali Pasha s Empire in Africa [see previous lecture, The Mahdi ] Area relevant to Neo-Mahdism
Economics, Labour and Neo-Mahdism British Abolition Policy: in Condominium - created large population freed-slaves (in both Egypt, Sudan) - many (recently enslaved Sudanese) returned to South
Economics, Labour and Neo-Mahdism Important Distinction: - Mahdi Family : considered African (black) by Middle East/Egypt,, still Arab (white) to many followers - reconsider Photos [from The Mahdi lecture, Nov. 14]
Economics, Labour and Neo-Mahdism Freed Slaves: - those who did not remain with masters (who still provided employment): - moved to cities (especially Khartoum) - established important communities (freed-slave) workers
Economics, Labour and Neo-Mahdism Communities were: Black, Non-Muslim, Non-educated, Non-Arabic speaking in centers of Arab ( white ), Muslim (Educated, Arabic) culture - wealth in hands of Arab merchants - power in hands of Muslim clerics - culture in hands of Arab/Muslim Northerners Critical process in associating South with black with non-arab with Slave in colonial society Legacy not long in coming
Economics, Labour and Neo-Mahdism Major Work on this topic in Sudan undertaken by Ahmed Sikainga From Slaves to Workers Sikainga inspired by Fred Cooper s From Slaves to Squatters (Zanzibar); also remember Rashid bin Hassani ): [see video excerpt from Sudan: History of a Broken Land (6:58-9:48min), Add l Rdgs]
Economics, Labour and Neo-Mahdism To Conclude [from al-karsani]: [it is clear that ] the bedrock of support for neo- Mahdism was in Western Sudan [Kordofan, Darfur], and could have been laid in no other part of the country