TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE....................... 11 I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF LEGAL MAXIMS 13 Ch. 1 Introduction 15 1.1 The Terms Qā idah and Aṣl in Islamic Law. 15 1.2 Methods in Uṣūl al-fiqh Attributed to the Jurists....................... 16 1.2.1 The Method of the Ḥanafīs or the Method of the Jurists............... 16 1.2.2 The Method of the Majority Schools or the Method of the Mutakallimūn...... 17 1.2.3 Method That Combines the Two Previous Methods................. 17 1.2.4 The Method of Takhrīj Alā al-uṣūl... 17 1.2.5 The Method of Uṣūl Through the Maqāṣid 18 1.2.6 Method of the Ahl Ḥadīth?....... 18 1.3 Our Analysis of the Classification of Methods 18 1.3.1 General Analysis............ 18 1.3.2 Analysis Relevant for Qawā id Fiqhiyyah 20 Ch. 2 Essential Terminology and the Nature of Rules in Islamic Law 23 2.1 The Multiple Meanings of the Term Ḥukm. 24 2.2 Rules, Principles, Illah, Ḥikmah and Rationale 27 2.2.1 The Nature of a Rule.......... 27 2.2.2 Principle................ 29 2.2.3 The Rule and its Rationale....... 30 2.3 Presumptions, Propositions and Legal Maxims....................... 32 1
2 ISLAMIC LEGAL MAXIMS CONTENTS 2.3.1 Presumptions.............. 32 2.3.1.1 Legislative Presumptions.... 33 2.3.1.2 Presumptions of General Applicability............. 33 2.3.1.3 Presumption of Law...... 34 2.3.1.4 Presumption of Fact...... 34 2.3.2 Maxims................. 34 2.3.3 Propositions............... 34 2.4 Bāb, Ḍawābiṭ, Qawā id and Naẓariyyah.... 35 2.4.1 The Bāb................. 35 2.4.2 Ḍawābiṭ, Qawā id and Naẓariyyah.... 36 Ch. 3 Understanding the Development of Qawā id Fiqhiyyah as a Discipline 39 3.1 The Beginning at Kufa............ 39 3.2 The Separation of the Rules......... 41 3.3 Sample Qawā id Uṣūliyyah.......... 42 3.4 Qawā id Fiqhiyyah After al-dabbūsī..... 45 3.5 Qawā id Fiqhiyyah in More Recent Times.. 47 Ch. 4 Ch. 5 The Interpretation of Facts and the Function of the Qawā id Fiqhiyyah 49 4.1 Interpreting the Facts............. 49 4.2 The Functions That Principles Perform in Islamic Law................... 52 Analysis of What has Been Studied so far and the Methodology Followed in This Book 55 5.1 Questioning Some Definitions........ 55 5.2 What We Cannot Study in This Subject... 56 5.3 The Overlap With Uṣūl al-fiqh........ 58 5.4 The Methodology of This Book....... 60 5.5 Advantages for Future Research: Legal Concepts and Associated Theories........ 62
CONTENTS ISLAMIC LEGAL MAXIMS 3 II LEGAL MAXIMS AND LEGAL CON- CEPTS 65 Ch. 6 The Sharī ah as a Single Bāb 67 6.1 Siyāsah Shar iyyah: The Legal and Social Policies of the Sharī ah............... 67 6.1.1 The Basic Terms of This Topic..... 68 6.1.2 The Development of the Five Principles and Area of Operation......... 70 6.1.3 The Content of the Policies....... 72 6.1.4 Converting Policies into New Law... 74 6.2 The Role of Intentions............ 75 6.2.1 Intentions and the Hereafter...... 76 6.2.2 Intentions and the Law......... 77 6.2.2.1 Acts of Worship........ 78 6.2.2.2 Marriage, Divorce and Emancipation.............. 79 6.2.2.3 Contracts in General...... 81 6.2.2.4 Criminal Law and Torts.... 83 6.3 Looking at the Consequences........ 86 6.4 Trivialities to be Overlooked......... 90 6.5 Things Occurring Usually to be Assigned the Usual Rule................... 91 6.6 In the Case of Substitution, the Substitution Need Not be Complete............ 93 6.7 When a Part to be Considered the Whole. 94 6.8 When a Part of the Whole has a Separate Ḥukm 95 6.9 A Continuing Act May be Assigned the Rule of the Initial State............... 97 Ch. 7 The Bāb of Ibāḥah (Permissibility) 99 7.1 The Governing Principle of This Bāb.... 99 7.2 Liability of Human Beings in General: The Covenant With the Creator.......... 101 7.2.1 The Nature of the Covenant: The Obligations and the Demand for Performance 102
4 ISLAMIC LEGAL MAXIMS CONTENTS 7.2.2 Cases in Which Performance is not Required and is Suspended or Extinguished Altogether................ 105 7.2.2.1 The Minor........... 106 7.2.2.2 Insanity and Idiocy...... 106 7.2.2.3 Sleep and Fits of Fainting.... 106 7.2.2.4 Forgetfulness and Mistake... 107 7.2.2.5 Menstruation and Slavery... 108 7.2.2.6 The Liability of Non-Muslims. 108 7.2.3 How Does the Covenant Deal With the Area of Ibāḥah (Permissibility) Not Covered So Far: al-ḥujaj al- aqliyyah..... 109 7.3 Things That Must Always be Mubāḥ.... 110 7.4 Things That Must Always be Prohibited.. 112 7.5 Things That May Possibly be Permitted, but not Necessarily: Understanding the Main Principle.................... 112 7.6 Conclusion................... 115 Ch. 8 Presumption of Continuity (Istiṣḥāb al- Ḥāl) 119 8.1 The Meaning of Istiṣḥāb............ 119 8.1.1 Types of Istiṣḥāb and Their Legal Validity 120 8.2 Doubt and Certainty............. 122 8.3 Istiṣhāb al-ḥāl (Presumption of Continuity) is a Defensive Presumption and Does not Establish a Right................... 125 8.4 Miscellaneous Presumptions......... 128 Ch. 9 The Bāb of Ibādāt: Acts of Worship 131 Ch. 10 The Bāb of Contracts 137 10.1 The Principle of Ribā and Related Presumptions....................... 138 10.2 The Principle of Contractual Liability... 140 10.2.1 The Link With the Principle of Ribā.. 141 10.2.2 Passage of Title in Sales and What can be Lawfully Sold.............. 142
CONTENTS ISLAMIC LEGAL MAXIMS 5 10.2.3 Principle of Liability and Business Organization.................. 143 10.3 Principle for the Sold Commodity: Ownership and Possession.............. 145 10.3.1 Things not Owned........... 145 10.3.2 Things not in Possession: Selling Food Before Possession............. 147 10.3.3 The Exemption in the Case of Salam.. 148 10.4 The Principle of Prohibition of Gharar: The Misunderstood Principle........... 149 10.5 Suspended (Mawqūf ) Contracts and Ratification: The Unauthorized Agent........ 150 10.5.1 Building the Rules of Ratification... 152 10.5.2 Applying the Rules of Suspended Contracts and Ratification.......... 157 10.6 Fasād, Conditions and Stipulations..... 159 Ch. 11 Liability in General 165 11.1 Developing a Theory of Liability...... 165 11.2 General Rule for Injuries........... 166 11.3 The Destruction of Property and its Compensation (Ḍamān)................. 167 Ch. 12 The Bāb of Shubhah 173 12.1 The Operation of Shubhah in Crimes.... 173 12.2 Expanding the Operation of Shubhah to Family Law and Other Cases........... 176 Ch. 13 Legal Necessity, Hardhip, Need, Prohibitions and Permissions 179 13.1 Duress Affecting Human Life and Limbs. 179 13.2 Necessity as General Need.......... 183 13.3 Cases of Hardship: Exemptions (Rukhaṣ).. 185 13.4 Prohibitions and Permissions........ 188 Ch. 14 Ādah and Urf 191 14.1 The Different Meanings of Ādah....... 191
6 ISLAMIC LEGAL MAXIMS CONTENTS 14.1.1 Ādah as a Physical or Scientific Fact Situation................... 191 14.1.2 Ādah as Commercial or Other Practice Whether Good or Bad...... 197 14.2 Maxims Dealing With Urf (Usage; Customary Practice).................. 198 14.2.1 Types of Urf : Division into usage and practice................. 198 14.2.2 Legal Maxims About Urf....... 200 Ch. 15 Dārs, Jurisdiction and Non-Muslims 207 15.1 The Concept of the Dār............ 207 15.2 The Dār al-islām and its Non-Muslim Residents...................... 212 Ch. 16 Legal Rights 217 16.1 Rights That Cannot be Transferred or Relinquished..................... 221 16.1.1 Pure Rights of Allah.......... 221 16.1.2 Where the Right of Allah and the Right of the Individual are Both Involved, but the Right of Allah is Predominant..... 222 16.1.3 Pure Rights of the Individual...... 222 16.2 Rights That Can be Transferred or Relinquished..................... 223 16.2.1 Where the Right of Allah and the Right of the Individual are Both Involved, but the Right of Individual is Predominant.. 223 16.2.2 Pure Rights of the Individual...... 223 16.2.2.1 Rights Linked to the Ayn (Chattel) 224 16.2.2.2 Rights Linked to the Dayn (Deferred Claim)......... 225 16.2.2.3 Pure Rights (Ḥuqūq Mujarradah) 225 16.3 Delegating Rights Not Possessed...... 228 16.4 Relinquished Rights.............. 229 Ch. 17 Evidence and Declarations 231
CONTENTS ISLAMIC LEGAL MAXIMS 7 17.1 General Presumption of Veracity for All Muslims....................... 231 17.2 Relevant Facts and Inferences to be Drawn. 233 17.3 The Prima Facie Position and the Burden of Proof...................... 234 Ch. 18 Ijtihād and Fatwās 239 18.1 The Integrity of ijtihād............ 239 18.2 There is no Ijtihād When the Text is Absolutely Clear...................... 241 Appendices 243 A Uṣūl al-karkhī With Translation 245 A.1 Introduction: Imām al-karkhī........ 245 A.2 Preliminary.................. 246 A.3 The First Principle............... 246 A.4 The Second Principle............. 247 A.5 The Third Principle.............. 248 A.6 The Fourth Principle............. 249 A.7 The Fifth Principle.............. 249 A.8 The Sixth Principle.............. 251 A.9 The Seventh Principle............. 251 A.10The Eighth Principle............. 252 A.11The Ninth Principle.............. 253 A.12The Tenth Principle.............. 254 A.13The Eleventh Principle............ 254 A.14The Twelfth Principle............. 255 A.15The Thirteenth Principle........... 256 A.16The Fourteenth Principle........... 256 A.17The Fifteenth Principle............ 257 A.18The Sixteenth Principle............ 258 A.19The Seventeenth Principle.......... 259 A.20The Eighteenth Principle........... 259 A.21The Nineteenth Principle........... 260 A.22The Twentieth Principle........... 261 A.23The Twentyfirst Principle........... 262 A.24The Twentysecond Principle......... 263
8 ISLAMIC LEGAL MAXIMS CONTENTS A.25The Twentythird Principle.......... 263 A.26The Twentyfourth Principle......... 264 A.27The Twentyfifth Principle.......... 265 A.28The Twentysixth Principle.......... 266 A.29The Twentyseventh Principle........ 267 A.30The Twentyeighth Principle......... 267 A.31The Twentyninth Principle.......... 269 A.32The Thirtieth Principle............ 271 A.33The Thirtyfirst Principle........... 272 A.34The Thirtysecond Principle......... 273 A.35The Thirtythird Principle........... 274 A.36The Thirtyfourth Principle.......... 275 A.37The Thirtyfith Principle............ 276 A.38The Thirtysixth Principle........... 277 A.39The Thirtyseventh Principle......... 277 A.40The Thirtyeighth Principle.......... 278 A.41The Thirtyninth Principle.......... 280 B Excerpts From al-dabbūsī s Ta sīs al-naẓar 281 B.1 Abū Zayd Ubayd Allāh ibn Umar Īsā al- Dabbūsī..................... 281 B.2 The Introduction............... 282 B.3 Disagreement Between Abū Ḥanīfah and the Two Disciples................. 286 B.4 Disagreement of Abū Ḥanīfah and Abū Yūsuf With Muhammad............... 292 B.5 Disagreement of Abū Ḥanīfah and Muhammad With Abū Yūsuf............. 293 B.6 Disagreement Between Abū Yūsuf and Muḥammad.................. 294 B.7 Disagreement of Our Three Jurists With Zufar 296 B.8 Disagreement Between Our Three Jurists and Mālik...................... 298 B.9 Disagreement Between Us and Ibn Abī Laylā 298 B.10 Disagreement Between Us and al-shāfi ī.. 299 B.11 Miscellaneous Principles That Have Affected Issues...................... 302
CONTENTS ISLAMIC LEGAL MAXIMS 9 C Articles 2 to 100 from Majallat al-aḥkām al- Adliyyah 303 D Maxims From al-ashbāh wa-al-naẓā ir by Ibn Nujaym 311 D.1 The First Six Principles............ 311 D.2 The Next Nineteen Principles........ 312 E List of Legal Maxims Discussed in This Book 315 Bibliography 331 Glossary 333