UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING

UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI CENTRE FOR DISTANCE LEARNING ISL 301: Islam in Africa (2 Units) Course Facilitator: Mal. Yahaya M. Kasa 1

STUDY GUIDE Course Code/ Title: ISL 301: Islam in Africa Credit Units: 2 Timing: 26hrs Total hours of Study per each course material should be twenty Six hours (26hrs) at two hours per week within a given semester. You should plan your time table for study on the basis of two hours per course throughout the week. This will apply to all course materials you have. This implies that each course material will be studied for two hours in a week. Similarly, each study session should be timed at one hour including all the activities under it. Do not rush on your time, utilize them adequately. All activities should be timed from five minutes (5minutes) to ten minutes (10minutes). Observe the time you spent for each activity, whether you may need to add or subtract more minutes for the activity. You should also take note of your speed of completing an activity for the purpose of adjustment. Meanwhile, you should observe the one hour allocated to a study session. Find out whether this time is adequate or not. You may need to add or subtract some minutes depending on your speed. You may also need to allocate separate time for your self-assessment questions out of the remaining minutes from the one hour or the one hour which was not used out of the two hours that can be utilized for 2

your SAQ. You must be careful in utilizing your time. Your success depends on good utilization of the time given; because time is money, do not waste it. Reading: When you start reading the study session, you must not read it like a novel. You should start by having a pen and paper for writing the main points in the study session. You must also have dictionary for checking terms and concepts that are not properly explained in the glossary. Before writing the main points you must use pencil to underline those main points in the text. Make the underlining neat and clear so that the book is not spoiled for further usage. Similarly, you should underline any term that you do not understand its meaning and check for their meaning in the glossary. If those meanings in the glossary are not enough for you, you can use your dictionary for further explanations. When you reach the box for activity, read the question(s) twice so that you are sure of what the question ask you to do then you go back to the in-text to locate the answers to the question. You must be brief in answering those activities except when the question requires you to be detailed. In the same way you read the in-text question and in-text answer carefully, making sure you understand them and locate them in the main text. Furthermore before you attempt answering the (SAQ) be sure of 3

what the question wants you to do, then locate the answers in your intext carefully before you provide the answer. Generally, the reading required you to be very careful, paying attention to what you are reading, noting the major points and terms and concepts. But when you are tired, worried and weak do not go into reading, wait until you are relaxed and strong enough before you engage in reading activities. Bold Terms: These are terms that are very important towards comprehending/understanding the in-text read by you. The terms are bolded or made darker in the sentence for you to identify them. When you come across such terms check for the meaning at the back of your book; under the heading glossary. If the meaning is not clear to you, you can use your dictionary to get more clarifications about the term/concept. Do not neglect any of the bold term in your reading because they are essential tools for your understanding of the in-text. Practice Exercises a. Activity: Activity is provided in all the study sessions. Each activity is to remind you of the immediate facts, points and major informations you read in the in-text. In every study session there is one or more activities provided for you to answer them. You must be very careful in answering these activities because they provide you with major facts of the text. You can have a separate note book 4

for the activities which can serve as summary of the texts. Do not forget to timed yourself for each activity you answered. b. In-text Questions and Answers: In-text questions and answers are provided for you to remind you of major points or facts. To every question, there is answer. So please note all the questions and their answers, they will help you towards remembering the major points in your reading. c. Self Assessment Question: This part is one of the most essential components of your study. It is meant to test your understanding of what you studied so you must give adequate attention in answering them. The remaining time from the two hours allocated for this study session can be used in answering the self- assessment question. Before you start writing answers to any questions under SAQ, you are expected to write down the major points related to the particular question to be answered. Check those points you have written in the in-text to ascertain that they are correct, after that you can start explaining each point as your answer to the question. When you have completed the explanation of each question, you can now check at the back of your book, compare your answer to the solutions provided by your course writer. Then try to grade your effort sincerely and honestly to see your level of performance. 5

This procedure should be applied to all SAQ activities. Make sure you are not in a hurry to finish but careful to do the right thing. e-tutors: The etutors are dedicated online teachers that provide services to students in all their programme of studies. They are expected to be twenty- four hours online to receive and attend to students Academic and Administrative questions which are vital to student s processes of their studies. For each programme, there will be two or more e-tutors for effective attention to student s enquiries. Therefore, you are expected as a student to always contact your e-tutors through their email addresses or phone numbers which are there in your student hand book. Do not hesitate or waste time in contacting your e- tutors when in doubt about your learning. You must learn how to operate email, because e-mailing will give you opportunity for getting better explanation at no cost. In addition to your e-tutors, you can also contact your course facilitators through their phone numbers and e-mails which are also in your handbook for use. Your course facilitators can also resolve your academic problems. Please utilize them effectively for your studies. Continuous assessment The continuous assessment exercise is limited to 30% of the total marks. The medium of conducting continuous assessment may be through online testing, Tutor Marked test or assignment. You may be required to submit your test or assignment through your email. The continuous 6

assessment may be conducted more than once. You must make sure you participate in all C.A processes for without doing your C.A you may not pass your examination, so take note and be up to date. Examination All examinations shall be conducted at the University of Maiduguri Centre for Distance Learning. Therefore all students must come to the Centre for a period of one week for their examinations. Your preparation for examination may require you to look for course mates so that you form a group studies. The grouping or Networking studies will facilitate your better understanding of what you studied. Group studies can be formed in villages and township as long as you have partners offering the same programme. Grouping and Social Networking are better approaches to effective studies. Please find your group. You must prepare very well before the examination week. You must engage in comprehensive studies. Revising your previous studies, making brief summaries of all materials you read or from your first summary on activities, in-text questions and answers, as well as on self assessment questions that you provided solutions at first stage of studies. When the examination week commences you can also go through your brief summarizes each day for various the courses to remind you of main points. When coming to examination hall, there are certain materials that are prohibited for you to carry (i.e Bags, Cell phone, and any paper etc). 7

You will be checked before you are allowed to enter the hall. You must also be well behaved throughout your examination period. UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI DEPARTMENT OF ARABIC AND ISLAMIC STUDIES ISL 301 ISLAM IN AFRICA (2 UNITS) BY Dr YAHYA MUSA KASSA 8

INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE Islam in Africa is suitable for anyone who is interested in understanding how Islam penetrates into Africa. This Course Guide tells you briefly what the Course is all about, what you are expected to know in each session, what Course Materials you will be using and how you can work your way through these Materials. It also emphasizes the need for Tutor Marked Assignments. There are periodic Tutorial Classes that are linked to the Course. COURSE OBJECTIVES Further, to achieve the aims of studying this course there are overall set objectives. In addition, each session has specific objectives. The session objectives are always included at its beginning. You should read them before you start working through the sessions. You may want to refer to them during your study of the session to check your progress. You should always look at the session objectives after completing a session. This is the way by which you can confirm whether you have done what was required of you by the session. 9

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction and Spread of Islam in East, North and West Africa 2. The development of Islamic institutions in these regions, i.e. i. East Africa ii. North Africa iii. West Africa iv. Development of Islamic Institutions in Africa 10

STUDY SESSION I INTRODUCTION AND SPREAD OF ISLAM IN EAST, NORTH AND WEST AFRICA 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Objectives 1.3. Islam in East Africa 1.3.2Jslrnn in North Africa 1.3.3 Islam in West Africa 1.4 Summary 1.5 Self assessment exercise 1.6 Reference 1.7 Suggested readings. 11

STUDY SESSION I INTRODUCTION AND SPREAD OF ISLAM IN EAST AFRICA INTRODUCTION In this session, we shall be discussing the introduction of Islam in east, north and West Africa. LERNINING OUTCOMES At the end of this study session, you should be able to i. Explain the beginning of the coming of Islam into different parts of Africa, ii. Explain the different ways and means through which the religion came and spread into Africa 1.3.1 INTRODUCTION AND SPREAD OF ISLAM INTO AFRICA Introduction: Africa before Islam Before the introduction of Islam into Africa, the whole continent other than few areas in the North of Africa, were followers of traditional religions these ranged from the worship of idols, spirits, caves, sculls of ancestors and living Heroes etc. The introduction and spread of Islam into Africa began in the 7 th Century as a result of Islamic call that began in Makkah by the last Messenger of Allah, Muhammad (SAWA). It began with Ethiopia, the horn of Africa. Africa was inevitably therefore, the second home of Islam after its original home Makkah. Even at the early period of prophetic, the religion found its way into Africa as a result of the immigration of some n 83 Muslims into Ethiopia in 12

Africa during the reign of its leader, Najashi who was a Christian by religion. There were also some rudiments of Judaism prevalent in the Northern parts of Africa before the prevalence of Islam. While in Ethiopia, after interrogating them, the king gave the Muslims political asylum to stay in his land under his protection as long as they wished. They were also allowed to practice their new religion without molestation. It was related that during their stay in Ethiopia, some indigenous people did convert to Islam because by the time they were returning to meet the Prophet (SAWA) in Madina, their population was said to have increased. Later, Islam re-entered and spread trough economic activities. Unlike in East Africa, Islam entered into North Africa as a result of Jihad (Holy war) this was because of the hindrance it faced against its peaceful penetration by the Byzantine government who were then the overloads of the Berber tribe, the predominant tribe in North Africa; the Berbers were the tribe in control of the Maghrib then. After the initial Jihad and others that followed, the religion found a base and; the peaceful permeation of the religion the various parts of North Africa took place. The next stage of conversion and spread of the religion followed the process of trade and through the efforts of itinerant Islamic scholars. From the North, the same Berbers who hindered the initial penetration of Islam into their land until after a series of battles and defeats to that paved the way 13

for Islam, became its propagators further south into West Africa; the region they had already known through trade and commerce. On the other hand therefore, from its initial stage, Islam in West Africa took the process of trade. So, unlike in the east where the initial Introduction of the religion was done through immigration of persecuted Muslims from Makkah and into North Africa where the religion was introduced through Jihad that paved the way for Islam into it, Islam in West Africa was done principally, through the activities of traders and itinerant scholars. Even before the beginning of Muhammad s (SAW) call in Makkah, there had been long trade contacts and adventures between the Africans and Arabia, Yemen, India, Rome, and as far as with China so, with the beginning of Islamic preaching by Muhammad (SAW) Islam, came to be primarily introduced and spread through emigration, Jihad and trade. Traders and adventurers across the red seas and Indian Ocean came into the Horn of Africa and various other East African Coasts to trade with Africans. Islam s first contact with Africa in general and east Africa (specifically Ethiopia) in particular began during the early 7th century, when the prophet (PBUH) allowed some number of persecuted Muslims to migrate to the hair of Africa, Ethiopia. This episode however, did not make much impact and the Islmasation of the area as the migrant Muslim population was incapable in some ways to act as missionaries in the active sense of it. However, later trade came to play a significant role in the Islamisation of the East African Coast. From the coast 14

environment, through traders and adventurers, the religion spread deep into the interior of Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and what was then Tanganyika With the penetration of the religion into these regions, a number of mainland and urban centres or settlements sprang and it continued to accommodate the influx of Muslims to the areas. With this development a permanent mark of Islamic culture was left with the non-muslim peoples of east Africa especially in the areas of language, manner of dressing, cuisine (style of cooling food usually served in expensive restaurants) and in certain groups and the introduction of circumcision etc. Islam came to be considered by the people as the religion of advancement, modernity, sophistication and civilization. 1.3.2 ISLAM IN EAST AFRICA East Coastal area of Africa has had links with different peoples, cultures and civilisations for hundreds of years before the coming of Islam. There had been trading links between Egyptians in Africa with the land of Punt which at that time was said to have included Eritrea, Somalia and Yemen. It was called Azania by the Romans. The Islamic period on the East African Coast (EAC) started from the first hijrah (migration) of some persecuted Muslims from Makkah to Ethiopia (Habasha) where An-Najashi (the Negus) was ruling. The pagan Quraysh followed the Muslims and begged An-Najashi to exile them back to Makkah, but once the king heard the Muslims arguments that included the recitation of some portions of Suratul (Chapter of) Maryam, the Negus cried and allowed the Muslims to stay in his land as long as the wished. He gave them the maximum protection they needed and the right to practice their religion. The Muslims left Habasha only when the Prophet migrated to Madina, and as it was said, with some new converts. When 15

An-Najashi died, the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him and his progeny) performed the Funeral Prayer for him in Madina, which indicates that he must have accepted Islam and had a gathering of followers locally who might also have propagated the religion in Eritrea and northwestern Somalia. A story also narrated from one Lamu Chronicle indicates that the Umayyad caliph Abdullahi ibn Marwan was said have sent some emissaries to the East African Coast in 696 CE. This indicates that there had existed some sort of relationship existing between East Africa and the centre of the Islamic world at that point in time. This can possibly be in trade and Islamic education. The Kilwa Chronicle also has the story that around the eighth Century seven Muslim brothers had emigrated from Shiraz (Persia) in today s Islamic Republic of Iran, and established their rule on the East African Coast. This must also have left its Islamic footprints in the East African Coast. According to the Muslim historian Al-Mas udi, around the 10th century traders were entering the East African Coast from Arabia, the Persian Gulf, India, and China. The Muslim geographer Al-Idrisi also noted that in 1154, there was trade between Zanzibar and Muscat and Oman, The Muslim Moroccan geographer and traveler, Ibn Batuta too, visited Mogadishu, Mombassa, and Kilwa in the 14th century, where he found that the learned people and ulamaa (learned men) who mostly practiced the Shafi i fiqh (jurisprudence), had correspondences with their counterparts in the Hijaz. This showed the level of Islamic intellectual activity that was prevalent in the area at that point in time. From the 12th to 14th centuries urban settlements emerged as a result of commerce and Islamic scholarship. So, all the new towns and cities were either market centres or centres or scholarship or both. For instance, urban settlements 16

like Mombassa, Zanzibar, Kiwali, and Kilwa in the eastern coast served as cosmopolitan centres where predominantly Muslim traders and Islamic scholars lived and carried out their activities. The Swahili are said to have had a very natural life style that was completely environmentally friendly. They used natural materials like coral to make houses that still stand today, and their diet was mainly made of local fruit, vegetables, and fish. This had given Islam the much needed situation to spread peacefully. Around 1498, when some Christian Portuguese reached the eastern coast to perform trade and a religious crusade, Vasco de Gama who was the representative of the king and people was astonished on how he saw the level of advancement that Kilwa had. He was said to have described Kilwa as; extremely beautiful, with exotic fruits, organized streets, running water, strong structures, and (advanced) literacy with scholars to rival Europe, (cutesy of Islam and Muslims). Ironically however, those visits like many other Europeans visits into Muslim lands were mischievously done or embarked upon with the intention of coming later to colonise the Muslim lands and their peoples which they did. In 1505 the Portuguese attacked Mombasa and established what they called Fort Jesus and many other forts and continued to subjugate predominantly Muslim cities all along the Indian Ocean, from the Arabian Peninsula, Aden, India, Goa, Gujarat, to Calcutta, and created a trade route from the East African Coast all the way to China. The Swahilis who were predominantly Muslims and the predominantly merchants in the area managed to drive out the Portuguese with the help of the Omanis but failed because, but by 1812, there were clashes between Mombassa and Lamu, and Sultan Sayyid Sa id consequently intervened and conquered the Swahili for his selfish ends. 17

As a result of Muslim division and weakness, by 1840, the Portuguese totally subdued Mombassa to the extent that Zanzibar was made the capital of the Swahili coast and Oman too, thereby gaining control of the once predominantly Muslim areas. This brought to the end Muslim grip of the area and finally colonialism ushered in that later engulfed the whole of Africa. This also led to the split and merger of Muslim peoples and societies into non Muslim states and societies. The Indian Ocean, one of the agency through which Islam came into east Africa, was the medium that linked east Africa and the Arab world. The Arabs usually came to the east African ports around the months of November and April. East African coasts that led to Kilwa and Sofale in the hinterland played such primary roles. From the period of this introduction, Islam continued to spread in east Africa up to the 18th century when the colonialists finally came to the whole region. However, even at that period, the practice of Islam of the east African coast peoples bears strong traces of indigenous African religion in the prominence of beliefs in spirits and spirits possession, ancestor worship, witch-craft and sorcery. This later led to the emergence of puritanical movements like that Seku Ahmadu and Alhaji Umar Tall etc, which helped in the creation of some Islamic state in the Sene Gambian regions of Futa Jalon and Futa Toro. Activity 1 How was Islam Introduced and Spread in East Africa Clerk P. B. West Africa and Islam SUGGESTED READINGS Stride G.T. peoples and Empires of West Africa 18

1.3.3 INTRODUCTION AND SPREAD OF ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA Before the introduction of island into the Maghrib, ( North Africa), the Berbers were the predominant tribes of the area. They were said to have been present in the area of northern Sahara since the first (1st) millennium B.C or even earlier. Before Islam took root and control over North Africa, it was ruled by the Byzantine Empire under the Romans, during that time, they were a bit influenced by the Christian religion and ways of life with some traces of their (Berber) traditional religion too. This was indeed one of the main reasons why the Berbers resisted the coming of Islam. As in the case of east Africa there had also been long time trade links along the Sahara between the Arabs and the Berbers before the advent of Islam. Due to this old commercial relation between the two peoples, there had been conversions in parts of North Africa. However, the well-known period Islam penetrated Africa north was in 639-40 CE seven years after the death of the Prophet (PBUH). This was with the conquest of Egypt. From that period, Egypt entered a new complex, becoming a country of two cultures that of Christianity and Islam. In 640 CE Amr ibn Al- Aas (may Allah be pleased with him) conquered Egypt through Fustat, and proceeded to conquer other lands of the Byzantine Empire along the Mediterranean, where the peoples had been exploited and non- Romans were reduced to second-class citizens in their lands. In 646 652 Ibn Abi Sarh took over from where Amr (RA) stopped. He continued the march across North Africa to Western Tunisia, Northern Algeria, and the majority of the Sahara. He was succeeded by Uqba bn Nafi, who was credited with the work of spreading Islam into Moroco, and the march was supposed to have even reached the Atlantic 19

Ocean. Uqbah also moved south and continued the propagation of Islam into the Sahara, up to the area surrounding Lake Chad. In the beginning, the spread of Islam in North Africa had been military, this was because of the hindrance made by the Berbers and the Byzantine authorities, but however, later it became peaceful and spread by trade, proselytism and intermarriage. Islam was also spread through Islamic education, knowledge, and Arabic language, all the way down to West Africa, mainly through such peaceful means, especially trough the trans-saharan trade routes. Separated from the other Christian communions, Egypt entered the sphere of still nascent life and culture of Islam. This conquest was what gave way for the easy spread of Islam in Egypt and other parts of North Africa. With the coming of Islam into Egypt, Christianity declined in number and stagnated in spirituality. It brought new life to the people and Egyptians came to play a great role in the new world, which they were linked. During the Fatimid dynasty s period, Egypt became very unique in a cultural movement. It was then that the Azhar University was founded. From that period, Egypt became an important centre of learning in the Islamic world. Another conquest of Egypt was in 641CE/2OAH by Amr bn al-as. After his success in the conquest of Palestine, he conquered Egypt and took Alexandria, the capital of Byzantine province in Africa or Maghrib from then the area belonged to the Muslims. Between the years 647-656, Abdullah bn Sa d on the authority of Uthman bn Affan, the second Caliph, led an expeditions from Egypt into Ifrigiyyah ( today s Tunisia) and defeated the Byzantine at the battle of Sheitla. 20

However, the real conqueror of North Africa whose conquest penetrated the interior of the region was Ugaba bn Nafi al-fitri; he conquered North Africa between the years 663-6 (43AH). The success of his Jihad led to the founding of the city of Qairawan. From there as a base, he extended his Jihad (holy war) against the Berbers and the remaining of Byzantine fortress until he was martyred in 682-3 CE (63AH) in a battle against a Berber chief Kusaila, who had earlier vowed to kill him. Ugbah was succeeded by Hassan bn an-nu man and on the side of the Berbers; a woman prophetess al-kahinah (the soothsayer) was then their leader. She challenged the Muslim conquest in a battle she remarkably and bravely fought the Muslim forces until when she lost her life near a place called Bi r-al-kahina, (a well named later after the prophetess ). With this defeat, the strong opposition force against the penetration or Islamisation of North Africa was no more. And Nu man drove the remaining Byzantines, the overloads of the Berbers; out of Carthage and other coastal towns without much resistance. With this success, more especially after the death of the woman prophetess Kahinah, resistance were given out to the Muslim forces, the death of their spiritual leader might have signaled to them that Islam was a superior religion, as a result, their traditional religion was no more feasible and so, further resistance to it (Islam) was pointless. With the Muslim conquest of most parts of North Africa, the Berbers began to accept Islam en-mass and this served as the major reason for Islamic influence in North Africa. Sooner has the Berbers begun to accept the religion, the Kharijiyyah sect (Karijites) appeared in North Africa and by virtue of their doctrines of recognizing the leadership of even the non-arabs, the Berbers took to 21

it enthusiastically. These people later became the major force in; and harbingers for the spread of Islam in North, East and more especially, West Africa. Another great landmark was the revolution which changed the societies of North Africa and Western Sahara; this was as a result of the migration of the tribes of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaimi in the 11 th century. These migrations established Arabs all over North Africa especially among the Berber tribes. These set of Arabs had no connection with those that engaged in wars but remained purely nomads. Algeria in North Africa came under Islamic influence in 950 CE, Qairawan in 676 CE, Tunisia in 698 CE, Qyda in 944 CE, Marrakesh in 1O7 CE, and Rabat and Morocco in 16O CE etc. With the Islamisation of the Berbers, and by the virtue of their being traders, they served as both merchants and propagators of Islam in nooks and corners of both North and West Africa. From the period Islam became the predominant religion of the people of North Africa and the immigration of some Arab tribes into it, the area apart becoming Islamic it also became influenced by Arab culture; today, North Africa is both Arab and African. However, despite the long presence of Islam in North Africa however, some learned men amongst them still noticed some traces of innovations or decline in Islamic standards and traditionalism in the Muslims lives; coupled to that there were also traces of subjugation by the leadership and Islam is against oppression, so, there was the need for reviving the religion to purify Islam and free people from being oppressed. At that period in time, Islam remained somehow confined to the kings palaces and most towns and trade centres, but the bulk of the rural population and the masses (common men) were left either as non -or nominal Muslims. Most of the kings also combined Islam with some rudiments of animism. 22

These and many other factors were what led to the formation of a puritanical movement in the Sanghaja Berber community of the Maghrib named Al-Murabitun (Almoravids) in 1039 C.E. The movement emerged under the leadership of one Sheikh called Abdullah ibn Yasin. Before the beginning of the jihad, ibn Yasin had earlier traversed the whole of North Africa and parts of West Africa on Islamic mission, coupled to that, he also noticed ill practice on the way the religion was being practiced; this led him to the conclusion on the need for revivalism in those areas. Their basic aims or tenets of the movement were ordering good and forbidding evil, and fighting illegal forms of taxation imposed upon people. They also believed in establishing rubut (fortresses or defense) on the edge of Muslim states, as the Muslims were perpetually fighting off Byzantine and other enemy forces. In just a few years of its activities, this movement had succeeded in touching many areas. At its height, Al-Murabitun Empire included Morocco, Western Algeria, and as far as to Andalusia (Spain). In 1051, Al-Murabitun had a new leader in the Maghrib, he was Yusuf ibn Tashfin. Under his leadership the movement flourished and spread south into West Africa, Around 1062, Yusuf Ibn Tashfin succeeded in establishing the movement s capital at Marrakesh, and soon after, led his forces into Seville (Sequiliyya) in Andalusia (Muslim as southern Spain) to help the Muslims fight against the encroaching Christian armies because of a tax dispute. He came to their aid again in 1088, against the Christian forces encroaching from the Northern provinces. After becoming successful in Andalusia, the Al-Murabitun weakened in power, zeal and in their Islamic practice, another movement with the same aim emerged. This movement was called, the Al-Muwahhidun (Almohads) movement; 23

it emerged under the leadership of Muhammad ibn Tumart, a Masmuda Berber from southern Morocco, became stronger overthrew and succeeded the Muarabitun around 1146. The leader of Al-Muwahhidun ibn Tumart, had been to Hajj and studied in Makkah, he was said to have been influenced by the writings of AI- Ghazali, which led him to try to revive Islam in the Maghrib including Northwest Africa except Egypt. Under Ibn Tumart, Al-Muwahhidun, preached the importance of Tauhid (Oneness of Allah). After his defeat of Al-Murabitun in Andalusia in 1146, Islam was able to bloom once again and as a result, brilliant thinkers and scholars such as the philosopher and Fiqh (Islamic law or Jurisprudence) expert scholars, Ibn Rushd and the famous North African sociologist Ibn Khaldun, came into limelight in the areas of Islamic missionary work and writing treatise which became very important documents in many fields of sciences and Sociology even today. Andalusia finally fell to the Christians in 1492 as a result of the same spiritual decays of Muslims and of course the colonial adventurism of the West. Activity 2. Give an outline of the introduction and spread of Islam in North Africa 24

REFERENCES Alkali N. (Ed) Islam in Africa SUGGESTED READINGS i. Clerk P. B. West Africa and Islam ii. Dahiru U. Qur anic Education in Borno 25

1.3.4 INTRODUCTION AND SPREAD OF ISLAM IN WEST AFRICA Islam was introduced to West Africa through the East and North Africa. As Islam established its base in East and North Africa, it gradually followed the trade links to West Africa. So, the first factor that led the coming of Islam into West Africa was through trade that took place between the regions of East and North Africans with the West African peoples, other agencies through which the religion reached West Africa and permeated included; Itinerant Muslim scholars, Islamic festivities and jihad movements. As regards the introduction and spread of Islam in West Africa, traders had played the greatest contribution. The introduction of the religion into North Africa has had effects on West Africa as well since trade routes that sprang from the north were numerous. There were so many trade routes that linked North and West Africa; these trade routes included those that linked Sijilmasa, Awdaghost, Taghaza, Taodeni and other areas of Morocco with ancient Ghana in the west. There was also the Tripoli-Kanem route which passed through Fezzan and Bilma in the eastern areas of the continent. Through these routes and many others, the religion was spread peacefully and automatically through social and economic intercourse. Islam reached Kanem and Bornu most probably via Uqbah ibn Nafi, who took it all the way to Lake Chad and perhaps even married there. Islam became the 26

majority religion in Kanem in the l3th century and later in Bornu in the 15th century during the Syfawa Dynasty. The Empire reached its peak under Mai (King) Mai Idris Alawma (1570 1603) when all the state dignitaries were Muslim and the seat of the government, N gazargamu became an important centre for Islamic learning and commerce. Some scholars are of the view that, Islam entered West Africa around the 11th century. According to the source concerning this, the Muslim geographer, Al- Zuhri writing in 1137, said that the people of Ghana converted in 1076, most probably through al- Murabitun presence among them, even though their king was a non-muslim. The Andalusian geographer, Al-Bakri in 1068, collected information on three Africa kingdoms of his time that included, Gao, Takrur, and Ghana. In one text, he presented the account of the conversion of a West African king through an encounter with a Muslim merchant and propagator. The Muslim was a guest of the king, whose country had suffered continuous drought year after year. Therefore, the king pleaded with his Muslim guest to pray for rain for his people; he agreed to do so but with the condition that the king converted to Islam and prayed with him. He converted and so, they prayed throughout the night and rain fell at the first light of the dawn. Having seen this miracle, the king ordered the idols to be broken and the sorcerer s expelled from his kingdom. Consequently, the king s descendents, and nobles accepted Islam and became sincerely attached to it. But however, most of his subjects remained polytheists. After the building of Islamic schools and mosques in his country, Islam spread so much that in Jenne in 1200 as historians reported, there were over 42,000 scholars residing in the city of learning different aspects of Islam. 27

The years 1050 1250 saw the peak of the Malian Empire in the region. In the 14th century, the Malian Emperor Mansa Kankan Musa established the Maliki School of law in the empire, and performed Hajj. It was reported that during his trip to Makkah, as many as 12 72,000 people accompanied him cross the Sahara desert to Egypt where he met the Mamluk rulers, who were dumbstruck at his entourage (number of people that followed him). Mansa Musa and his followers carried so much gold with them on their travels that they literally affected the economy of every land they resided in, as Mali was the center of the West African gold trade at that time. The well-known 14th century Moroccan traveler who visited the Mosque at Marrakech was Ibn Battuta. He visited Mali during 1352 53, during the reign of Mansa Musa s brother, Mansa Sulayman. He was amazed at the just life and peace that prevailed there; he also admired the Muslims love for building mosques and performing the Jumu ah (Friday) Prayers. Despite that, it was said that he also noticed some reproachable pre-islamic local practices still in vogue in the king s court and indicating the prevalence of social stratification in the rank and file of the people, especially between the haves and the have not s and between the leaders and the led. This situation raised the importance and need for reform in the kingdom. The next empire to emerge in the region was the Songhay Empire. It emerged in the 15th Century, which was also famous for its development of Islamic education. Timbuktu and Jenne were the most important centres of this empire; and the Andalusian architect and poet Abu Ishaq Al-Sahili, who met Mansa Musa en-route from Hajj, built the well known Timbuktu Friday Mosque, which developed to what can be called a university due its scholarship as a result of being inhabited by a multiple number of versed scholars. Sidi Abdurahman Al- 28

Timimi was said to have traveled from Arabia to Timbuktu to find out that the scholars led him in fiqh, so he stayed to learn from them. This was one of the oldest universities in human history. In the late 17th century there was a mass movement of scholarly clans in the whole of West Africa which included families, who were itinerant in nature. Before that, these scholars have written books about the great merchants and scholars who crisscrossed the lands of West Africa including Mali. Islam in Mali reached its peak in the period of the West African King Mansa Musa in the 13 th Century. When these clans settled in the rural areas they formed their own religious communities, away from the traditional urban Muslim centres that were becoming increasingly corrupt and debauched. An example of these-is is the Jahanke, who specialized in Maliki fiqh. Another clan was the Kunta of the Gambia, who are said to have introduced the Qadiriyyah Sufi tariqah into West Africa. The activities of these Sufi Order later played great roles in the wide spread and development of Islam in various parts of Africa including Nigeria and Ghana to mention but a few; this was mainly done through education, including jihads and the establishment of Islamic theocratic state. The mobile clans in west from the 13 th to the 17 th Centuries were said to have been around 500 1,000 in number, and wherever they went, they set up schools and intermarried with the locals. They practiced a system, where the students lived with and sometimes worked for their teachers. The experience was a lesson in developing not just book wedge, interpersonal relations and rigorous Islamic education and training which ended actually in putting the Qur an and Sunnah into real life. From the rural areas, these scholarly clans returned to the cities and established great educational institutions. The Torodbe scholarly clans were typical examples; they had great roles in the dissemination of knowledge and 29

waging Jihad in the 17th and 18th centuries. They were distinguished by wearing fine designs on their garments. Probably the most famous of them was Sheikh Uthman dan Fodio, who fought a revolutionary jihad against the lax rulers of Hausaland (northern Nigeria) from 1804 to 1808. He justified this jihad on moral grounds, through his famous prolific treatises and poetry in Fulfulde, Arabic and Hausa. Thereafter, he established the Sokoto Caliphate; his son Muhammad Bello and his descendents continued in their efforts to sustain the system up to the time of the colonial conquest of the British in 1903. Before the British conquest, the Dan Fodio Caliphate of what came to be Nigeria had already engulfed the whole of Northern Nigeria and was drifting to many parts of the South. However, even after colonisation and independence, Islam had continued to spread and develop in Nigeria especially, from the premiership period of Sir Ahmadu Bello, the Sardauna of Sokoto in the 1960s. Long before the establishment of Islam in West Africa, there existed trade links between the Berbers and Arabs of North Africa therefore, the Muslim traders moved with the practice of the religion as they traded with the West African peoples. The Arabs and the Berber traders therefore, were the first people to introduce Islam into the region. The Wangara traders also came to play great roles in the Islamisation of some parts of West Africa. As they came to trade, they also converted the indigenous people they traded with in various parts of West Africa to Islam. So, they were traders as well as preachers or Islamic missionary workers. The Muslim merchants who were at the same time proselytisers (Du ats) and teachers made the spread of Islam an important part of their activities in the region. Most peoples of the savannah belt received their first knowledge of Islam from these wandering traders and itinerant scholars. Thus, Islam established its first roots in Sudanic cities by peaceful persuasion. These missionary activists were 30

very much enthusiastic when they got converts. At that point in time, to convert a Soninke or Mandingo trader to Islam was to gain another soul for Allah and possibly a useful missionary among his people and relations. During these conversion sessions, the conversion of a ruler in a given society was most influential as the king usually influenced the conversion of many more people especially his relations, close officials and subordinates. This usually led to the gradual introduction of leading features of an Islamic society or state, as it happened in Ghana from the period Baramendana, Mali during the reign of Mansa Kankan Musa, Songhai during the reign of Askia Muhammad the great and Kanem Borno during the period of Mai Hume Jilmi and Idris Aloma As early as the 9th century there were found indigenous Muslims in Tekrur, ancient Ghana; and Kanem. By 1067, there was already a flourishing Muslim community in Kumbi. The city was even divided into two; the Muslim and non- Muslim quarters. As at that time, the city of Kumbi had twelve mosques in the Muslim quarters; that shows the great number of Muslims in the city at that point in time. There were also some leading members who were established as ministers in Ghana. By the time pagan kings and chiefs began to embrace and practice Islam, the religion started to gain overwhelming conversions. In Ghana Empire for instance, after the conversion of a chief called Baramendana, many of his subjects also converted. After his conversion, he made pilgrimage to Makkah and on his way back through North Africa he brought with him an Islamic scholar Abdullahi Ibn Yasin who helped him in converting and teaching his people Islam. He also helped in reforming the religious practices of the earlier Muslims. Ibn Yasin was the same teacher who later took arms against nominal Muslims who mixed Islam with syncretism and the leaders among them who oppressed their subjects. 31

With the conversion of the king of Tukrur, War-Jabi to Islam, he set up the machinery for establishment of Islamic law among his Tokolor people. In Kanem Borno many of their leaders embraced Islam as early as the 8th century CE. However, at the ascension of Mai Hume Jilmi to the throne of leadership in the 11th century CE, he made Islam a state religion in the Empire. The same thing happened in Kano during the reign of their king, Sarki Ali Gaji and Katsina, during reign of Muhamrnad Korau in the 15 th century C.E. So, in West Africa, the initial introduction of Islam and its spread was principally through the efforts of Muslim merchants and scholars from North Africa. By the 13th century, the religion was already widespread but it was still not practiced in the orthodox way, so this called for reformation and revivalism. This led to the emergence of movements, beginning with that of the Murabitun which lasted up to the 19th century. The Almurabitun Movement appeared in the 11 th Century from North Africa across Ghana; and those of Uthman Dan Fodio in the Hausa land of today s Nigeria in the early 19 th Century, Alhaji Umar ibn Sa id Tall and Alhaji Umar al-futi in the Sene-Gambia in second half and late 19 th Century. All these movements or jihads had helped in the expansion and purification of Islam in Africa. Today, Islam is a major religion in almost all nooks and corners of West Africa and has much influenced the life patterns of West Africans in almost all aspects of their lives; sometimes even in non muslin areas or among non- Muslim peoples of the region some traces of Muslim culture are found. Activity 3 Discuss the agencies through which Islam was introduced and spread in West Africa SUMMARY FOR STUDY SESSION 1 32

The introduction of Islam in Africa began during the early days of the propagation of the religion in Makkah. It was carried out through four main ways: i. Migration of Muslim peoples into Africa either as asylum seekers or settlers during the time of the Prophet (SAWA), from Makkah to Ethiopia the Horn of Africa. ii. Economic relations between the Arabs and the Africans which had been existing from time immemorial. This made easy the Arab Muslim interactions with the Africans which yielded positive results as far as wining the souls of the people of Africa for Islam was concerned. iii. The efforts of Islamic missionaries and itinerant scholars of Arabs and Berber stock from North Africa like Abdul-karim al-maghili who s contribution was very prominent in Kano and Katsina. Others include Abdullah lbn Yasin, al-makhluf Ali, Al-Bakri, bn Mani, and Ibn Khaldun Utman dan Fdiyo, Muhammadu Bello, Abdullahi etc in the Islamisation and purification of the religion in various parts of Africa. iv. The role played by African kings like Baramendana, of Ghana Empire. during the reign of Mansa Kankan Musa of Mali, Askia Muhammad the great of Songhai and Mai Hume Jilmi and Idris Aloma of Kanem Borno Empire. Others include; Sarki Ali Gaji and Muhammadu Rumfa of Kano and Sarki Muhamrnad Korau of Katsina. vi. Jihads which were waged with the intention of removing some hindrances. This ad played a great role in the permeation, and purifying of the religion in various parts of Africa, and its impact is still being felt to date. These include the following:-almurabitun Movement in the 11 th Century from North Africa across Ghana; and those of Uthman Dan Fodio in the Hausa land of today s Nigeria in the 33

early 19 th Century, Alhaji Umar ibn Sa id Tall and Alhaji Umar al-futi in the Sene- Gambia in second half and late 19 th Century. With the help of these groups of people, Islam spread to all parts of Africa that today, hardly you can fine in the whole of African society, a city, town or village that does have muslin population and these conversions are also still going on. Today, groups and organisations are still helping through education and preaching; sometimes on Radio, Television and Internet etc to Muslims and more people are still converting to the religion. I.T.Q: when you complete this session you may be able to answer this question: Discuss the various ways Islam was introduced in East, North and West Africa. A.T.Q: Islam was introduced into East Africa initially through the immigration of some 83 persecuted Muslims under the leadership of Ja far into Ethiopia; it was later spread through traders and itinerant Islamic scholars. As a result of these trading centres and new towns emerged which also served as centres of education, permeation and development of Islam. In North Africa, the religion was introduced through series of Jihads since the period of Caliph Umar (RA). This was because the Byzantine rule and the dominant tribe in North Africa, Sanghaja Berbers refused to allow Islam into it. So, the success of the jihads paved the way for the religion in the region. Later, immigration of Arabs and further development of trade between the Arabs and Berbers led to the widespread of the religion in the area and further south into West Africa. In West Africa however, Islam was mainly introduced and spread as a result of trading activities between West Africans and the Arabs and Berbers. Itinerant scholars also did play allot in the introduction and permeation of the religion in 34

West Africa. Some of these itinerant scholars later settled permanently in various parts of West Africa. The roles played by various West African leaders of various kingdoms has also been great, especially in the wide spread of the religion and effecting changes in favour of Islam from the moment they accepted the religion and in attracting, inviting and patronising Islamic teachers in their lands. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE FOR STUDY SESSION 1 1. Describe the different ways Islam was introduced to Africa 2. Explain how each of the following groups helped in the introduction, spread and stabilisation of Islam in Africa. a. Muslim teachers b. Reformers and Jihadists. REFERENCES: i. Stride G.T. peoples and Empires of West Africa ii. Dahiru U. Qur anic Education in Borno iii. Clerk P. B. West Africa and Islam SUGGESTED READINGS Alkali N. (Ed) Islam in Africa 35

STUDY SESSION 2: TABLE OF CONTENT 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Objectives 2.3.1 Development of religious institutions 2.3.2 Development of political institutions 2.3.3 Development of economic institutions 2.3.4 Development of educational institutions 2.3.5 Development of social institutions 36

2.0 THE DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC INSTITUTIONS IN AFRICA INTRODUCTION In this topic, we shall be explaining the changes brought by Islam to various African traditional institutions. LEARNING OUTCOMES OF STUDY SESSION 2 At the end of the study students should be able to: a. Describe the institutional changes brought by Islam to Africa b. List those institutions affected by the prevalence of Islam in the African regions 2.3.1 The development of Islamic institutions in Africa After the introduction of Islam in Africa, it brought changes in the hitherto non Islamic institutions prevalent in the various regions of Africa; these changes affected almost all aspects of Africans life and institutions. It led to the emergence of Islamic educational institutions where Qur an and other Islamic sciences are studied; including Arabic literacy. Thus, worship places like mosques which also served as schools emerged in various Muslim quaters.with this development, Africa formally became connected with the global Muslim world, and the Arab world also. Ambassadors were therefore exchanged and the yearly Hajj pilgrimages were undertaken by African Muslims to the land of Makkah where they meet with some Muslims of other parts of the world, criss-crossing ideas and cultures etc. Other institutions like that of the Zakah religious tax was also known for the first, which helped in poverty reduction. Islamic schools were also located in every Muslim village, town, and city where Qur an, Hadith and other Islamic sciences 37