A Vanished World The Jewish Experience in Spain Introduction The history of the Jews throughout Europe is one of repeated bouts of persecution and discrimination. History records Jewish communities living in the Iberian Peninsula from as early as the destruction of the first temple in Jerusalem. However, it was during the period of the occupation of Spain by the Moors that the Jewish community was to flourish and reach its apogee. The first of many discriminatory laws against Jews was passed before the Moorish invasion. In 305 AD after the Council of Toledo a law was passed forbidding Jews from blessing the crops of non-jews and forbidding Christians from sharing meals with Jews. In 409 the Visigoths invaded Hispania and in 612 the Council of Gundemar of Toledo ordered that all Jews submit to baptism or undergo scourging, mutilation, banishment, and confiscation of goods. In 711 a mixed Arab and Berber army crossed from Africa and within two years had consolidated their hold on most of the peninsula. The period of Islamic rule began with a period of tolerance of both Christians and Jews by their Moorish masters. The tolerance did not mean equality; Muslims had greater rights and responsibilities. The Moorish occupation by the Moors was welcomed by the Jewish population. The Moors, with the assistance of the Jews, developed a civilisation centred on their capital at Cordoba that was unequalled elsewhere in Europe. By the end of the 8 th century Al-Andalus, as it was known, was a populous, highly cultured and industrious land. It conducted a prosperous trade throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. The Jewish population, which had been almost destroyed by the Visigoths, was able to flourish. Romans & Visigoths One of the earliest Jewish artefacts remains a mystery. It is a basin or trough that comes from Tarragona and that is dated to around the 5 th century. It is inscribed in three languages and has in the centre a menorah, the Jewish candelabrum. To the right is a peacock and the Tree of Life ; to the left is a second peacock. The three inscriptions read: in Hebrew on the left, Peace on Israel, on us & our children ; in Latin, Pax Fides ; and then the three Greek letters MAH, the meaning of which is not understood. 1
5c trough from Tarragona, now Santa Cruz museum, Toledo From about a century later is a tomb stone from Tortosa that has much longer inscriptions in the three languages. On the right side is a small menorah that confirms that this is a Jewish stone. 2
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6 th century stone from Tortosa Another tomb stone from the 6 th century that is now in a museum in Comarcal shows part of a menorah below which there are two peacocks. The imagery used on this and on the trough closely resembles the imagery used on Christian stones of that period across France, Italy and Spain. 6c Funerary tablet now in Comarcal (left) & 5c funerary tablet now in Lyon (right) Jewish culture takes shape under Islamic rule Under Islamic rule Jews were able to develop their culture, but in so doing they were enormously influenced by the Islamic culture; in particular, the Hebrew language became increasingly Arabized. In so doing it allowed Jews to exploit the already sophisticated cultural qualities and resources of Islamic culture. They adopted Moorish clothing styles but were prohibited from wearing rich furs and fabrics such as silks and were not to wear the Muslim colours of green and white. Three names of Jews stand out for their achievements during the first period of Islamic rule: Samuel ibn Nagrella ha-nagid (993-1056), Abraham ibn Ezra (1089-1164) and Moses ben Malmon, also known as Maimonides (1138-1204). Samuel ibn Nagrella ha-nagid was appointed Vizier of Granada; he lived in a grand palace; he took part in military campaigns against neighbouring kingdoms. But all the while he followed the teachings of the Torah and cultivated religious learning amongst his co-religionists in Spain. It was his success, power and influence that encouraged an increased insurgence of Islamic fundamentalism that was to lead to stricter controls over the Jewish population and, ultimately, to their persecution. 4
Samuel ibn Nagrella ha-nagid Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra was born in Tudela, in Navarre. He was one of the most distinguished and erudite men of letters from the medieval period. He was a poet, philosopher, mathematician, astronomer and linguist. He left Spain in 1140 to escape persecution and travelled through Europe and North Africa until his death in Narbonne in 1167. 5
Statue of Abraham ibn Ezra in Cordoba The Jews turn to the Christian Kingdoms of the North When the Moors conquered the Iberian Peninsula, small pockets of Christians held out successfully against the invaders; they were aided by the long mountainous barrier that extended along the North coast from Navarre to Galicia. These pockets of resistance coalesced into three small kingdoms and a county: the Kingdoms of Leon, Navarre and Aragon and the County of Barcelona. From this base the Christians slowly rolled back the land under Islamic rule, a process that was to last five centuries. Al-Andalus in about AD 800 At the end of the 11 th century the Almoravid dynasty seized control of Andalusia and threatened the Christian kingdoms of the North. The Almoravids would be thought of today as being fundamentalists and intolerant. Jews were able to continue to work as moneylenders, jewellers, cobblers and tailors but they were required to wear distinctive clothing including a yellow turban. As the restrictions on Jews increased more fled North to the Christian Kingdoms where they were welcomed and were allowed to live in freedom with certain restrictions in religious matters. Throughout the 12 th and 13 th centuries the Jewish communities in the North benefited from their relationship with their Christian rulers. The Judería or Call de los judíos The Jews tended to settle in communities that were confined to particular areas of the towns and cities. The term Judería was applied to these districts across medieval Spain except in Catalonia where they were called Call de judíos. The character of these districts was to change over the next three centuries from being an area where co-religionists could live in peace and security conducting their affairs in accordance with their religious precepts to ghettos where they were confined and where they huddled for mutual protection from their Catholic assailants beyond the walls. 6
Barcelona Call Toledo Judería The layout of the Juderías followed the same form as the Christian areas of the towns; there was usually a main street and small alleys leading off them. Archaeological digs have confirmed that their houses were the same as those of their Christian counterparts, depending on the owners social status and wealth. 7
Barcelona Haggadah, now BM, London - Builders The most important building of the community was the synagogue. During the period of Islamic rule Jews were sometimes given Visigoth churches; later, as the Christians re-conquered Spain, mosques were turned over to the Jewish settlers in newly resettled towns. Later, increasing restrictions were to be imposed that banned the building and repair of synagogues. Ultimately most were transformed into churches Cordoba - Interior of the former synagogue. 8
Toledo Santa Maria la Blanca, former synagogue The Moors installed public baths in many of their towns and the Jews were permitted to use them on specified days. The Jews also built the bath for their ritual immersion, the mikvah. One of these has survived in the small Catalan town of Besalú. 9
Hispano-Moresque Haggadah, F 90r. Purifying goblets (left) & Besalú Mikvah (right) Like most communities, The Jews were keen to trade and to conduct commercial life, though in accordance with the rules of their religion. So there were communal bread ovens for baking the unleavened bread, markets or alcaicería (which was a market of Muslim origin), butchers shops and pharmacies. Hispano-Moresque Haggadah Baking bread and cooking 10
Cantigas de Santa Maria A Jewish pharmacy Household goods in Jewish houses were generally no different from those in the homes of their Christian counterparts. In Teruel, in Aragon, a substantial quantity of ceramic pieces have been recovered from the site of the Judería. With a few exceptions where a Jewish motif has been included, the items are identical to those used in other Teruel households 14 dish for oil, Girona (left) and 14c dish from Valencia (right) 11
Two 14c dishes from the Judería at Teruel in Aragon The wealthier the owner, the more lavish was the quality of the goods within his home. Two late 14c plates from the Judería at Cordoba XVc Passover dish from Catalonia (left) and early 14c silverware from Burgos 12
Many household items in Jewish houses would have resembled those in Moorish or Christian houses and these would be in the styles of those of their neighbours. Two bronze lamps showing Islamic influences The Jews in Spain were fond of jewellery. Items in museums are not of a particularly high quality. Most come from tombs or from hidden hoards. It is probable that many of the finer items were taken by the owners as they went into exile. 13
14 th century Jewish wedding rings now in Minnesota, US Four Jewish rings from the 14 & 15c, now in Burgos 14
A manuscript from the 15 th century that is now in Minnesota shows that the Jews were little different from those of other communities in the way that they socialised. The Jews with some social standing conducted their affairs within a customary formal fashion. A fine example is the contract of the dowry and marriage between Rabbi Moses Amigo and Bienvenda, who were Jews living in Arévallo, near Avilla. The manuscript dates from 7 March 1479. Jewish lovers in a 15thc manuscript now in Minnesota, US (left) & Marriage contract (ketubah) between Rabbi Moses Amigo and Bienvenda (right) 15
Marriage contract (ketubah) of Rabbi Sadoc & Bella, 14c, now in Vic, Catalonia Each Jewish community had its own legal and administrative system; in this respect they were no different from their Christian counterparts who had their own codes of law, the fueros. The court of law (bet-din) was based on rabbinic tradition and was subject to local interpretation. The statutes were secured in the synagogue. Records of the bet-din, Tuedela 1487, now in the Tudela municipal archive It was the custom of the Jews in Spain to bury their dead outside the town on a nearby hill. Hence, the Montjuïc (the Mountain of the Jews) outside Barcelona, the site of the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games, and at Girona were Jewish burial sites. Excavations at these sites have resulted in the recovery of tomb stones from the Middle ages. Most have only an inscription in Hebrew. 16
14c tombstone of a boy, Josef, (left) & Reuben (right), Girona Montjuïc The Arts and Sciences We have already noted that the dwellings of the Jewish communities in Spain resembled those of the other inhabitants. Mention has been made of the synagogues of Santa Maria la Blanca in Toledo and the smaller synagogue in Cordoba. One other fine example has survived in Toledo. Formerly the synagogue of Samuel Halevi, it is now known under the name of El Transit; and it is the Sephardic museum. It is a large building that is decorated with Nasrid period stucco decoration that incorporates Hebrew inscriptions praising the Catholic king, quotations from the psalms, Arabic inscriptions that are intertwined with flower patterns and a fine Mudéjar panelled ceiling. The womens gallery from which they could watch the men at ceremonies has survived. 17
El Transito (Samuel Halevi synagogue) looking East 18
El Transito (Samuel Halevi synagogue) Stucco decoration in Womens gallery El Transito (Samuel Halevi synagogue) Capital with Arabic & Jewish inscriptions (left) & Fragment with Arabic inscription (right) 19
The techniques and palettes used by Jewish manuscript painters were similar to those used in the Christian scriptoria. Jewish manuscripts lack the elaborately decorated capital letters because they are absent in Hebrew. The scribe for the Hamilton Siddur, a Spanish manuscript from the late 13 th century, does use the bodies of animals to create the form of letters. A page in the Abraham Kalif bible that originated in Toledo in 1492 closely resembles the canon pages in Christian bibles of the period. Hamilton Siddur, late 13c, now Berlin 20
Damascus Keter, 1260 from Burgos, now Toledo (left) & Abraham Kalif bible from Toledo 1492, now New York (right) The use of use the bodies of animals to create the form of letters was used by the artist of the Cervera Bible that is dated to around 1300. He was called Yoseph ha-sarfati and he used a form of script known as Colophon to record his name. Cervera Bible, fol 449. Colophon The British Library holds the very fine Barcelona Haggadah, dating from 1320. In it the artist has illustrated scenes from the Passover. The value of these illustrations is that the artist has added details that record every day life of families in the Call. 21
Barcelona Haggadah, 1320, now BM London Two illustrations of the feast of the Passover It is of no surprise that some works should present obvious Islamic influences. A good example is the page of a 1470 bible that has floral decoration that might have been inspired by any of the floral patterns that were so common in Islamic stucco decoration. Illuminated Bible, 1470. Now Madrid Mention has already been made of Moses ben Malmon, also known as Maimonides. (See page 4). Amongst the many eminent Jewish physicians who served both Muslim and Christian courts in Spain none equalled Maimonides. He was born in Cordoba but fled with his family to escape the depredations of the Almohads. He travelled extensively before finally settling in Cairo where he was physician to the court of the 22
Saladin. He wrote in Arabic and produced a vast medical library. His best known work is Medical Aphorisms that are derived from Greek scholars and physicians. Medical Aphorisms by Maimonides 1187, now Madrid Maimonides was also a renowned philosopher, whose works tended to be in a mainly religious vein. He was the first Spanish Jew to establish the dogmas that Jews were required to believe. In Moré Nebujim (Guide for the perplexed) he made a decisive contribution to the understanding of the universe. 23
A Guide for the Perplexed by Maimonides, 1190. Now New York Jewish authors were eminent cartographers. The most important work of cartography was put together by Abraham and Yehuda Cresques, father and son, who came from Majorca. They were master map makers; their work, named after them, is the Cresques Abraham, a superbly illustrated mappamundi that is also known as the Catalan Atlas. This atlas covers the land mass from Spain, in the West, to China, in the East. It was created in Palma in 1375 for Prince John of Aragon. The accuracy is remarkable for the period. The illustrations have a delightful charm. 24
Cresques Abraham or Catalan Atlas, 1387 and details showing Near East & traders on the Silk Road. A richly illustrated manuscript called the Libros del saber de astronomia instructs readers on the properties and locations of astrological signs. It was one of many treatises that were disseminated in Castilian and to which Jews, Moors and Christians contributed. Libros del Saber de astronomia 1276, now in Madrid Along with charts and treatises on navigation there were the practical aides, the astrolabe in particular. This was an invention of the Portuguese that was rapidly adopted by all races living in the Iberian Peninsula. 25
Jewish astrolabe, now in Chicago (left) & Tri-lingual astrolabe now in BM London Two keys to the city of Seville that were presented to Ferdinand III at the surrender of that city are testament to the coexistence of the three communities. One key of gilded silver has the Spanish inscription: DIOS ABRIRA. REY ENTRARA (God shall open. King shall enter). On the border, in Hebrew, is a second inscription: The King of Kings shall open. The King of the Earth shall enter. The second key which is made of iron is inscribed: Grant us, Allah, the benefit of preserving the city. The keys to the city of Seville surrendered to Ferdinand III 26
The Conflict and Expulsion From 6 June 1391 the Catholic leaders in Seville encouraged the populace to destroy the Juderiá in the city. The mob killed over 4,000 Jews; most of the remainder were forced to recant their religion and to be baptised if they were to escape death. In subsequent months Christian fanatics across Castile and Catalonia killed Jews and destroyed their property. This violence was probably more about plunder than about religion. This was to be the start of the decline of the Jewish presence in Spain. In 1394 Jews were required to adopt a distinctive form of dress with an insignia to mark them as Jews. Pope Gregory IX had already given a lead by issuing a papal bull ordering the confiscation of all Jewish property. This was to be followed by a papal bull issued in 1221 by Pope Honorius III that required all Jews to wear a distinctive badge. Papal bulls issued Pope Gregory IX (left) and by Pope Honorius III (right) 27
The order for Jews to wear distinctive clothing issued in Majorca in 1394 28
The Nazi insignia for Jews and the Castilian form of dress for Jews with the insignia This restriction was followed by state ordered book-burning and vicious anti Jewish propaganda of a form that was to be repeated in the 1930s by the Nazis in Germany. Nazi Germany and Spanish Dominicans burning Jewish books Nazi anti Jewish propaganda posters 29
Spanish anti Jewish propaganda from the late 14c to the late 15c The confrontation was brought to a head when, on 31 March 1492, a royal edict was signed in Granada by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella that ordered the expulsion of the Jews from their kingdom. There were precedents for such action from elsewhere in Europe: France had expelled all Jews in 1182, 1206 and again in 1394 Britain expelled their Jews in 1290 Germany (Holy Roman Empire) expelled the Jews between 1340 and 1421 Decree of Expulsion of the Jews, from the Alhambra, 1492, now in Valladolid 30
Today, such an action would be considered Ethnic cleansing. Ethnic cleansing is a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent or terror-inspired means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas. Strict restrictions were placed on what valuables could be removed. Most property was sold in what was very much a buyers market, that added to the losses sustained by the Jewish community. Further, many debts owed by Christians were never repaid. Those travelling towards the coastal ports or to Portugal were attacked and killed or wounded despite a royal guarantee that they would be protected. Sale of the synagogue in Girona, Catalonia, in 1492 for 300 (in 2014 currency) 31
Letter from the monarch in Barcelona on 27 January 1493 granting Soria the synagogue as their town hall The number of Jews who departed into exile will never be known; estimates vary between 200,000 and 800,000. Expulsion of Arabs by Jews in 1948 and the Jews by Spanish in 1492 32
The last Jews left Spain on 31 July 1492, just four months after the signing of the expulsion order. Spain prevailed on Portugal to expel all Jews in 1494. The majority of those who left settled in North Africa and in the Eastern Mediterranean, particularly in Turkey. 33
The Holy Inquisition Just as it is not known how many Jews headed into exile, it is not known how many remained in Spain having undergone conversion to Christianity under duress. Figures vary from 50,000 to 300,000. Their situation became increasingly perilous. The driving force behind the hardening of attitudes against these converts was driven by Queen Isabella. As early as 1478 Pope Sixtus IV authorised the establishment of inquisitors to combat heresy and to protect the Catholic faith. Tomás Torquemada, a Dominican friar, was appointed as the first Inquisitor General, in which role he set out to pursue converts to the Catholic religion using methods to accomplish its goal that might be familiar to some factions operating in the Middle East today: denunciation, torture, brutal punishment and barbarous forms of execution. Trumped up evidence was commonplace. 34
Tomás de Torquemanda, the first Spanish Inquisitor General (left) & the dress to be worn by those undergoing Auto da Fe (right) A busy day for the Holy Inquisition In the first eight years of the Inquisition 2,000 people were gruesomely burnt to death and over 5,000 were sentenced to life imprisonment. Acquittals were rare. Trials were conducted in accordance with precise rules and regulations that gave the process a veneer of legality. 35
Saint Dominic presides in Madrid The Holy Office of the Inquisition was not abolished in Spain until 1834. Jews were not allowed to be Spanish citizens until after the death of General Franco, though many passed through during World War II as the escaped the Nazi persecution. In 1968 the Alhambra Decree of Expulsion was rescinded. In 2014 Jews of Sephardic origin were offered the right to Spanish citizenship without having to return to Spain or renounce any citizenship that they may have. Some 60% 0f the Jews in Israel today are of Sephardic origin. Some conclusions History, as many know, repeats itself again and again. Man has a remarkably short memory. The modern horrors of Islamic fanatics in the name of their religion are little worse than the deeds done in Spain in the name of Christianity. The ethnic cleansing inflicted on the Jews by the Spanish in 1492 was to be repeated across the world many times in subsequent centuries including, astonishingly, by the Jews in 1848. References consulted. Ajuntament de Barcelona. Hagadás Barcelona El esplendor judío del gótico catalán. Museu d Historia de Barcelona. 2015. Bango, Isidro G. Remembering Sepharad Jewish Culture in Medieval Spain. SEACEX.2003. 36
Beinart, Haim. The Expulsion of the Jews from Spain. The Littman Library of Jewish Civilisation. 2002. Lowney, Chris. A Vanished World. Oxford University Press. 2005. 26.10.2015 37