The History of Aristotle s Nicomachean Ethics

The History of Aristotle s Nicomachean Ethics Sirui Zhou 4,342 words (5,207 words including bibliography and notes) 1

Aristotle General Background Aristotle (384 BC 322 BC) was born at Stagira in Chalcidice (Northern Greece) in 384 BC. His father, Nicomachus, was a doctor. He entered Plato s academy in Athens and continued studying until Plato s death in 347. He was influenced by Plato and learned a great deal from the academy, although he offered criticisms of Plato and founded many theories based on his own ideas. He speaks with a delicacy of the unpleasant task of criticizing those as dear to him as the Platonic School. 1 After Plato s death, Aristotle moved to Assos(on the coast of Asia Minor) and the island of Lesbos. He taught the son of Alexander the Great, the king. After a few years, Aristotle founded a new school in Athens named Lyceum, which conducted many studies in the field of science and philosophy. Having run Lyceum successfully, Aristotle left to Euboea for political reasons and died in 322 BC. 2 Aristotle was the first Western thinker to divide philosophy into branches, which are still recognized by contemporary society: logic, metaphysics, natural philosophy, philosophy of mind, ethics and politics, rhetoric. He made great contributions in all these areas. Furthermore, Aristotle mastered several kinds of natural sciences, with a focus on biology. M. James Ziccardi said, It would be difficult, if not impossible, to name a philosopher who has had more of an impact on Western thought, or one whose influence has spanned a longer amount of time than Aristotle. 3 Aristotle was a principal founder of philosophy who divided philosophy into types of branches 2

including Metaphysics, Logic, Ethics, Physics. Aristotle wrote three works on ethics: Nicomachean Ethics (NE) in ten books, Eudemian Ethics (EE) in eight books, and Magna Moralia or Great Ethics. Aristotle did not name the first two works, but those who edited his works, his son Nicomachus and his friend, Eudemus, did. Both of the work are considered coming from the lecture notes. 4 Nicomachean Ethics is the most famous of the books. Nicomachean Ethics is a book that defines Aristotle s best known work on ethics. Nicomachean Ethics is generally recognized as the most complete and the most important of his writings on ethics. Furthermore, this book has a profound effect on medieval philosophy and on contemporary philosophy. The highest good Aristotle believes that every art and every enquiry, and similarly every action and choice, is thought to aim at some good; and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things aim. (NE, 1094a1 3) Thus, Nicomachean Ethics begins with determining the highest good. Aristotle gives the name Eudaimonia. 5 What do others consider the hightest good? Socrates (470 BC 399 BC) stresses that virtue was the most valuable of all possessions; the ideal life was spent in search of the good. 6 He thinks that it is good to pursue and master knowledge and to focus on self development based on wisdom and rational guidance rather than to pursue material wealth. Thus, he said that knowledge is virtue, just as if someone knows what bravery is, he will act bravely. 3

Plato (428 BC 427 BC) regards the highest good as a state of perfection, which is hard to comprehend because it is based on metaphysical presuppositions that seem both obscure and out of the realm of ordinary understanding. 7 For Plato, the good is a form that transcends the material reality of every day. People need to see beyond such material reality to pursue the good. 8 He describes the form of good in The Republic (508e2 3), and he thinks it is the ultimate object of knowledge. The form of good to exist from all eternity and things which can be perceived by human beings do not have the good. Aristotle is a practical man, and he takes Plato s idea out of the mystical realm and moves it back onto earth. In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle objects to Plato and states, Yet it would perhaps be thought to be better, indeed to be our duty, for the sake of maintaining the truth even to destroy what touches us closely, especially as we are philosophers or lovers of wisdom; for, while both are dear, piety requires us to honor truth above our friends. (NE 1.6) Aristotle argues that Plato did not posit the idea of classes that recognized priority and posteriority; the term good is used in the category of substance and in that of quality and in that of relation. But the substance is prior in nature relatively. As such, there could not be a common idea set over all these good. Aristotle: Eudaimonia(Happiness) is the highest good. Aristotle believes that not all ends are final ends, but the chief good is evidently something final, which is always desirable in itself and never for the sake of something else. People choose Eudaimonia(happiness) for itself and never for the 4

sake of something else, such as honor, pleasure, reason, and every virtue people choose in for the sake of happiness. The final good is thought to be self sufficient, defined as isolated, making life desirable and lacking nothing; Eudaimonia (happiness), is the most desirable of all things. Eudaimonia is something final and self sufficient and is the end of action. Happiness (Eudaimonia) Eudaimonia is translated into the word happiness, but it can be misleading. In the contemporary world, happiness is more related to a subjective feeling, but happiness according to Aristotle means living a flourishing or successful life. Other philosophy of happiness Plato(428 BC 427 BC) In Plato s perspective, there are three parts of the human soul: the rational part, the spirited part, and the appetite part. Plato believed that a certain kind of happiness is available to people if they balance these parts. Epicurus (341 BC 270 BC) Epicurus was an ancient Greek philosopher and the founder of Epicureanism. For Epicurus, the purpose of philosophy was to attain the happy, tranquil life, characterized by ataraxia (peace and freedom from fear), and aponia (the absence of pain), and by living a self sufficient life surrounded by friends. He taught that pleasure and pain are the measures of what is good and evil. The happy life is the one that is most pleasant. In his view, the highest pleasure (tranquility and freedom from fear) was obtained through knowledge, friendship, and living a virtuous and 5

contemplative life. Zeno of Citium (344 BC 262 BC), Cleanthes(330 BC 230 BC) and Chrysippus(279 BC 206 BC) Zeno, the founder, Cleanthes and Chrysippus are the first three heads of Stoicism. Zeno believed that happiness is a good flow of life (Arius Didymus, 63A) or living in agreement. Cleanthes clarified that with the formulation that the end was living in agreement with nature (Arius Didymus, 63B), and Chrysippus amplified this to (among other formulations) living in accordance with experience of what happens by nature. 9 Function (ergon) All things have a function. For example, the function of a knife is to cut food. The reason something is good depends on whether it performs its function well or not. For example, a lyre player is good because he or she plays the lyre well. 10 The word function suggests that human beings were designed for a specific purpose, and it consists in rational actions, which can distinguish human beings from other animals and vegetation. The function of a human is reason. Aristotle defines human happiness as performing functions in accordance with complete virtue. Virtue (aretê) Aristotle comes up with two sorts of virtue and makes a distinction between them: Virtue, then, being of two kinds, intellectual and practical, intellectual virtue in the main owes both its birth and its growth to teaching (for which reason it 6

requires expertise and time), while practical virtue comes about as a result of habit (ethos). (1103a14 19). Aristotle believes that there is a rational and an irrational part of human souls. However, the irrational part can be subdivided. 11 The first part is an irrational one concerned with nutrition, which can also be present in animals. This virtue allows humans and plants to have proper nutrition and to grow. 12 The next part is both irrational and rational at the same time. It s like a virtue of character, and it is considered a practical virtue. The third part is strictly rational. It allows humans to have intellectual virtue such as reason. 13 Intellectual virtue is acquired primarily through teaching, while the practical virtue arises through habit. 14 Practical virtues are executed by the adherence to the right rule. The intellectual virtue is required to identify the right rule in confrontation to specific circumstances. Human cannot achieve happiness without either intellectual virtue or practical virtue. Intellectual virtue Intellectual virtues motivate and maintain activities undertaken in the pursuit of all kinds of knowledge and understanding. 15 Intellectual virtue includes art (technê), scientific knowledge (Epistêmê), practical wisdom (phronêsis), theoretical wisdom (sophia), and intuitive reason (nous). Practical virtue The definition of practical virtue is that Virtue is a state connected with choice, lying in a mean relative to us, a mean being determined by reason, and in the way in which the man of practical wisdom would determine it (Book 2,Ch. 6,1106b 7

36 1107a2).According to Aristotle, virtue is a disposition with our desire and reasoning. Aristotle describes ethical virtue as a hexis ( state condition disposition ) a tendency or disposition, induced by our habits, to have appropriate feelings (1105b25 6). 16 Practical virtue requires a mean. The mean is not the middle but a way to avoid being excessive or deficient doing what is appropriate and feeling appropriately in every circumstance: Aristotle s discussion is that the virtue of courage lies somewhere in between being rashness and cowardice, (Nicomachean Ethics,Ⅲ. 6 9); temperance lies between licentiousness and insensibility (Ⅲ.10 12); liberality is between prodigality and illiberality,(Ⅳ.1); magnificence is between vulgarity and pettiness (Ⅳ.2); greatness of soul is between vanity and pusillanimity (Ⅳ.3); proper ambition is between ambition and unambitiousness(Ⅳ.4); patience is between irascibility and lack of spirit (Ⅳ.6); truthfulness is between boastfulness and understatement (Ⅳ.7); wittiness is between buffoonery and boorishness (Ⅳ.8); friendliness is between flattery and surliness (Ⅷ Ⅸ); modesty is between shyness and shamelessness (Ⅳ.9); and righteous indignation is between envy and malicious enjoy. Wisdom Theoretical wisdom (sophia) Theoretical wisdom is a combination of knowledge of necessary, scientific, first principles and propositions that can be logically deduced from them. It has no direct relation to human conduct, with an agent s given nature. 17 Aristotle write, If 8

happiness is activity in accordance with virtue, it is reasonable that it should be in accordance with the highest virtue. The best thing in us is one aspect of reason( not the general reason). He emphasizes that the highest activity is contemplation, and its virtue is theoretical wisdom (sophia). 18 Practical wisdom (phronêsis) Aristotelians claim that real virtue must be animated by practical wisdom. Aristotle believes that a person needs not to know what the specific virtue means (and there is no rulebook that can tell how to get in the habit of being virtuous in given situations) before the person grows up appropriately by following others who set a good example. This can be connected with Aristotle s other work Politics. That political deliberation, living a life of citizens, ruling and being ruled in turn, sharing in rule, all of these are necessary to virtue. People rely less on others and become capable of doing more of their own thinking. They develop practical wisdom to behave appropriately. Thus, people determine what to do in particular circumstances with the help of their virtuous habits and practical wisdom. 19 Aristotle says, Virtue makes the goal right, practical wisdom the things leading to it (1144a7 8), and he makes a further distinction that practical wisdom is being able to think well about practical matters. Theoretical wisdom is being able to think well about scientific matters. 20 Practical wisdom involves knowledge of what is good or bad; it is not merely theoretical knowledge, but a capacity to act on such knowledge as well. This capacity requires a conception of what is good or bad, which Aristotle relates to the conditions of human flourishing and the ability to perceive 9

what is required in terms of feeling, choice, and action in a particular situation. It requires the ability to deliberate well, and to act depends on deliberation (practical reasoning). 21 People are free to choose a certain virtue in the particular circumstance, and people have the right to define what roles are suitable to them. Other qualifications Aristotle adds that happiness, living a good life, can only be attained in a complete lifetime. Consequently, children cannot be said to be happy, because they have not yet lived a whole life. Happiness also is determined by people s accomplishments and their children s accomplishments, which may occur after their deaths. Moreover, there is something external called external good, which includes favorable upbringings, physical or mental endowment, adequate wealth, and trustworthy friends. The non moral goods can enable virtuous activities. Arabic Translation Movement Arabic Translation Movement (Harakah al Tarjamah) is an eminent cultural movement in the Middle Ages during the Islamic Golden Age, an Abbasid historical period beginning in the mid eighteenth century lasting until the Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258. 22 It led to a transformation of almost all philosophical disciplines in the Medieval Latin world. 23 In the Abbasid era, a new interest in studying Greek science had arisen. A great deal of knowledge was preserved and amplified through this creative and rigorous movement. 24 Maria Rosa Menocal (2005) observes, While the Umayyads of both Damascus and 10

Cordoba were culturally voracious and syncretistic, it was not they but the Abbasids of Baghdad, who sponsored the astonishing multigenerational project to translate major portions of the Greek philosophical and scientific canon without which, arguably, much of that canon might have been permanently lost. In 832 AD, the House of Wisdom (Bayt al Hikma), a translation institute and research center, was set up in Baghdad by Caliph Harun al Rashid and peaked under his son al Ma'mun, and was hosted by Hunayn ibn Ishaq. From the ninth to the thirteenth centuries, many of the most educated Muslim scholars were part of this research and educational institute. Many famous intellectuals such as Hunayan, Ibn Ishaq, Al Kindi, Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd, Farabi, Al Razi had an incredible impact on Medieval Arabic translation. It was those translations in the Arabic translation movement that led the way to popularization of Aristotle in Western Europe. Burgundio was probably responsible for the oldest Greek Latin translations of Aristotle's On Generation and Corruption and Nicomachean Ethics. AVERROES Averroes (Ibn Rushd) (1126 1198), a Spanish Muslim polymath born in the Islamic Golden Age, was a master of Aristotelian philosophy. He was a towering figure in the history of philosophy in general and Aristotelianism in particular, both in the East and West. He forged a crucial link between ancient and modern thought. 25 11

During the thirteenth century, translations of Averroes work became widely available. Scholars were most interested in his commentaries (in Arabic) on Aristotle. Averroes became so closely associated with Aristotle that he was respectfully referred to as The Commentator by Thomas Aquinas. 26 In regard to ethics, Averroes shares the view that happiness is reached through the joining of the human intellect with the separate active intellect. He also shares an epistemological optimism that for specifically gifted people, described as philosophers or philosopher prophets, a perfect joining is possible in this life. Thomas Aquinas disagrees with the epistemological premises and the ethical conclusion. He states that because human knowledge is bound to the senses, knowledge of the immaterial substances is not possible in this life and neither is perfect human happiness (Summa theol. Ia IIae q. 3 a. 2). 27 Averroes commentaries caused a stir among European intellectuals, in large part because of the challenge Greek philosophy seemed to pose to traditional religion. For more than 400 years, Muslim scholars had argued about whether philosophy and religion were compatible. Now it was time for Christian thinkers to enter the debate. 28 Thomas Aquinas The Arab world, which had thrust itself into old Europe, had been impressing Christians not only in its military and political might but also with its philosophy and science over a long period. Through translations from the Arabic into Latin, Arab 12

philosophy and Arab science had become firmly established in the heart of Christendom, even at the world s first university, the University of Paris. 29 Europe had been shrouded in a shadow of war for around 500 years. People awoke during the warfare period and began to suspect the religious belief. Aristotle, who integrates philosophy and science, was back to being recognized and being learned by people because of the popularization of Aristotle in the Muslim Golden Age. However, that impact certainly threatened the governing status of Christian theology, and that contributed to Thomas Aquinas becoming the crucial person who saved Christian theology. Thomas Aquinas (1224/25 1274), the dominant thinker of the Middle Ages, combined the science and philosophy of Aristotle with the revealed truths of Christianity. 30 His most significant contribution was to synthesize Greek thought and Catholic doctrine. Aquinas made vast commentaries on the philosophy of Aristotle, including the Nicomachean Ethics (10 Books). He tried to find the best translation and clarify every sentence of the text. Accordingly, many questions about whether St. Aquinas followed Aristotle directly arose. Joseph Owens suggests that Aquinas s allegiance to the Christian faith violated the commentary and the explanation on Aristotle. 31 However, most scholars appreciate the explanations of the commentaries, even knowing that they express Aquinas doctrines. Aquinas purpose is to show that Aristotle s philosophy is not opposed to the faith. He, however, admits certain statements conflict with Catholic doctrine. He 13

commented consistently in light of Nicomachean Ethics and his own understanding. 32 Furthermore, his commentaries aimed to replace the interpretation of Neoplatonism. Moreover, on some occasions, he rejects translations written by Averroes. For the interpretation and explanation of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aquinas and Aristotle reached a remarkable agreement. According to Leo Elders, the commentary on Nicomachean Ethics is a treasure trove. 33 There are inconsistencies within the interpretations. In Nicomachean Ethics, Aquinas makes the contemplative happiness of greater significance, which cannot be attained on earth, and he proves that God is a cause of man s happiness. Aquinas speaks of man s last end as the proper object of desire, and he characterizes this last end formally as happiness and substansively as God. All men desire happiness (ST la2ae.5,8), but not all see that God alone constitutes man s happiness. The last end is not some way that the created universe might come to be, but a perfect being who is always already wholly present though never wholly grasped by the human mind. 34 The changing fortune of a dead person s child is used by Thomas who states that the question of an afterlife lies outside the field of ethics, while Aristotle suggests a more perfect life by that kid s flourishing. 35 Regarding the important question of determining the morality of actions, Aristotle proposed criteria such as the instruction of the wise person, right reason, conformity with nature, and the mean between excess and deficiency. Thomas comments that the wise man knows the law, applies it, and so becomes the rule of what one should do. Harry V. Jaffa argued that in several places, Aquinas adds to the text, but one 14

can say that Thomas Aquinas explored much deeper than Aristotle did. 36 With the help of Aquinas, Aristotle and the philosophy of Aristotle are able to be rebprm. In addition, because of the deep understanding of Aristotle s work, Aquinas is able to express his intelligence and also help inspire Thomas to compose his work, Summa Theologiae. Other well known ethical theories Immanuel Kant (1724 1804) Immanuel Kant s Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals is one of the greatest ethical works after Aristotle s Nicomachean Ethics despite the fact that Kant s opinion completely opposes those opinions of Aristotelian ethics. Immanuel Kant argued that moral requirements are based on the standard of rationality called the Categorical Imperative. Nonetheless, he did not attempt to tell people what to do but help people to behave by using their reason. Kant believes that the morality of an action is not determined by its consequences but only by the intentions behind it. 37 Good will is intrinsically and unconditionally good, and our practical reason is better suited to develop and guide good will but not to achieve happiness, which consequently means that the value of good will is not the result. 38 The essence of acting morally for Kant does not lie in actualizing human potential as Aristotle believes; rather, it lies in responding to a demand of reason. To know more about Kant s ethics, we have to understand some formulas: 15

inclination and duty, heteronomy and autonomy, and hypothetical and categorical imperative. Inclination, heteronomy, and hypothetical imperative are in the same group, and the others are in their own group. Kant thinks that human who acts in accordance with the second group is considered moral. The only appropriate motive for moral action is a sense of duty rather than any other motive such as self interest. Acting from a motive of duty is acting simply because people know the action is right. 39 The compassionate inclination, however, which has no relation to ration and reason, is undesirable. Autonomy means acting in accordance with people s own choices and practical reason, namely acting according to a law people place on themselves. Heteronomy means action determined by some outside influences including inclination the categorical imperative,kant s term for basic moral duty determines moral law. 40 A hypothetical imperative is a conditional statement related to heteronomy. Kant provides many formulations of categorical imperative. Jeremy Bentham (1748 1832) Jeremy Bentham, a British philosopher, is considered the founder of Utilitarianism. For Bentham, the morally right action in any circumstances is the one that will tend to maximize total happiness. 41 He focuses on the amount of pleasure people can receive rather than how pleasure is produced. Happiness, according to Bentham, is a matter of experiencing pleasure and lack of pain. 42 John Stuart Mill (1806 1873) John Stuart Mill is the most famous utilitarian philosopher. There are 16

criticisms about utilitarianism, which does not concern how pleasures are created but focuses on irrational pleasure. Mill, accordingly, distinguished between higher and lower pleasure. He explains that intellectual pleasure is higher and more valuable than the physical ones. 43 Mill believes that the ultimate end of all human activity is happiness and the avoidance of pain. However, unlike the Epicureans, for the utilitarians, happiness is the sum of individual happiness, and itself desirable. 44 Because individuals want their own happiness, the sum of all individual happiness can simply be added up to an aggregation, which can be desirable. However, his arguments are too implausible to persuade people to pursue their own happiness. Comparison of the ethical philosophies of Aristotle, Kant and Mill For aristotle, the highest good is happiness (Eudaimonia) performing function well in accordance with virtues. For Kant, the highest good is good will, defined by duty. For Mill, it is happineess understood as pleasure and the absence of pain. Aristotle and Kant emphasize the disposition of the agent rather than the effect of an action, but Mill counts the consequence (the effect of the action). Aristotle believes the agent must first know what he or she is doing and choose to do the thing and then act from his or her own character. Kant believes that good will is good not because of its effects or to obtain the proposed end but solely because it is good in itself. Kant s philosophy is to follow the general principle no matter what the situation is. Mill, however, asserts that ethics do not require a feeling of duty, and 17

motives have nothing to do with the morality of the actions. Mill emphasizes the importance of consequences, which can determine the moral worth of an action, and he believes that choosing the most worthwhile action can enrich happiness. Aristotle and Kant admit that some actions are not supposed to ever be undertaken, while Mill believes no action is always wrong. Aristotle asserts that although many virtues are the mean between excess and deficiency, emotions such as spite, shamelessness, and envy causing adultery, theft, and murder are intrinsically bad without mentioning excess and deficiency. Kant believes that the right thing is always right and doing the wrong thing can never be forgiven. Because truthfulness is a duty, telling a lie is always wrong no matter what situation the agent is in. Kant thought emotions are either irrational or irrelevant to moral action; only the practical emotions, which are not emotions in the ordinary sense of the word, contribute to morality. 45 Aristotle, in contrast, asserts that emotions play an important role in cultivating specific virtues. Aristotle s philosophy is flexible, based on sensitivity to circumstances. Kant and Mill agree that morality serves duty. Aristotle, however, believes morality is embodied by behaving virtuously to shape character. For Kant, one has to do his or her duty for the sake of duty; for Mill, one has to do his or her duty to increase the amount of happiness for the largest number of people. Aristotle thought morality serves one s fulfillment and character. Aristotle, Kant, and Mill have three distinctive kinds of ethics, and all three philosophers faced a great deal of criticism for many years. 18

The Current State of Ethics The Virtue Ethics of the Western world was founded by Aristotle, and his thinking remained dominant. Although, in the nineteenth century, a temporary eclipse occurred, Aristotle s ethics soon re emerged in Anglo American philosophy as Anscombe s Modern Moral Philosophy (Anscombe 1958) illustrated the increasing dissatisfaction with the forms of deontology and utilitarianism. 46 The re emergence also motivated those two methods and other ethical readings of philosophers such as Martineau, Hume, and Nietzsche, and thereby different forms of virtue ethics developed. 47 Although modern virtue ethics do not have to take the form known as neo Aristotelian, nearly any modern version still demonstrates that its roots are in ancient Greek philosophy through the employment of three concepts derived from it. These are arête (excellence or virtue), phronesis (practical wisdom), and eudaimonia (happiness or flourishing). 48 19

Notes 1 David Ross, Aristotle(New York: Routledge., 1995) pp.1 2 2 J. L. Ackrill. Aristotle the philosopher(oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981) P.4 3 M. James Ziccardi, Fundamental Aristotle: A Practical Guide to the Nicomachean Ethics and Politics(Seattle: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011) p.3 4 David Ross and Lesley Brown, The Nicomachean Ethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press 1998) p.viii 5 Bill Pollard, Aristotle s Nicomachean Ethics(Philosophy 2B, 2006 7, University of Edinburgh), p.3 http://homepages.ed.ac.uk/wpollard/aristotlesethics.pdf 6 L. A. Michael, The Principles of Existence & Beyond (Lulu.com, 2007), p16 7 Dorothea Frede, Plato's Ethics: An Overview(Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, 2009) 8 D. Stephen Long, Christian Ethics: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010) p15 9 Dirk Baltzly, Stoicism(Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, 2010) 10 Pollard, Nicomachean Ethics, p.4 http://homepages.ed.ac.uk/wpollard/aristotlesethics.pdf 11 Aristotle and Roger Crisp, Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics (Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy)(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. xiv 12 Melissa S. Atkinson, Aristotle and Aquinas: Intrinsic Morality versus God's Morality, 20

http://rebirthofreason.com/articles/atkinson/aristotle_and_aquinas_intrinsic_moral ity_versus_gods_morality.shtml 13 Ibid. 14 Aristotle and Crisp, Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics, p. xiv 15 Suzanne Rice, Arlene L. Barry and Molly McDuffie Dipman, Intellectual Virtue( The Contributions of Newberry Award Winning Books, 2000 2010) http://www.journalofthought.com/issues/2012vol47issue4pdf/08rice.pdf 16 Richard Kraut, Aristotle s Ethics (Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, 2010) 17 J. A. Smith, THE ETHICS OF ARISTOTLE( A Penn State Electronic Classics Series Publication), http://www2.hn.psu.edu/faculty/jmanis/aristotl/ethics Aristotle.pdf 18 Ross and Brown, p. xvi 19 Kraut, Aristotle s Ethic 20 Pollard, Nicomachean Ethics, P9 http://homepages.ed.ac.uk/wpollard/aristotlesethics.pdf 21 Michael Lacewing, Practical wisdom, p1, http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/alevelphilosophy/data/a2/moral/practicalwiso m.pdf 22 Tahir Abbas, Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics: The British Experience(London Taylor & Francis, 2011) p.9 23 Dag Nikolaus Hasse, Influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West(Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, 2008) 21

24 Omar Jabak, Binnish, Idlib, Syria, Medieval Arabic Translation: Rise and Decline, http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article1319.php 25 Liz Sonneborn, Averroes (Ibn Rushd): Muslim Scholar, Philosopher, and Physician of the Twelfth Century (New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2005), P13 26 Ibid., p.89. 27 Dag Nikolaus Hasse, Influence 28 Sonneborn, Averroes (Ibn Rushd), p.89. 29 Josef Pieper, Guide to Thomas Aquinas (San Francisco: Ignatius Press; Subsequent edition, 1991), p. 4 30 Edward W. Younkins, THOMAS AQUINAS' CHRISTIAN ARISTOTELIANISM, http://www.quebecoislibre.org/06/060122 5.htm 31 Leo Elders, The Aristotelian Commentaries of St. Thomas Aquinas (The Review of Metaphysics), Vol. 63, No. 1 (Sep., 2009), Published by: Philosophy Education Society Inc. p.1, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40387727 32 Ibid., p. 32 33 Ibid., p.49 34 Timothy Chappell, Values and Virtues: Aristotelianism in Contemporary Ethics(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), p.105 35 Leo Elders, Commentaries, p.50 36 Ibid., p.51 37 Nigel Warburton, Philosophy: The classics. (New York: Routledge; 2nd edition, 2001), p.139 22

38 Nardin, Terry, and David Mapel, Traditions of international ethics(cambridge University Press, 1992.) P.137 39 Warburton, Philosophy: The classics. P.140 40 Ibid., P. 141 41 Ibid., p. 167 42 William Sweet, Jeremy Bentham (Internet encyclopedia of Philosopher Last updated: December 23, 2008 Originally published: April/11/2001), http://www.iep.utm.edu/bentham/ 43 Warburton, Philosophy: The classics p.169 44 Ibid., p.170 45 Ibid., p.143 46 Rosalind Hursthouse, Virtue Ethics (Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, 2012) 47 Ibid. 48 Ibid. 23

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