Lecture 9: Virtue Ethics

Lecture 9: Virtue Ethics Aristotle. 1999. Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by T. Irwin. Indianapolis: Hackett. I. Introduction a. Previous ethical theories have asked these questions 1. What Makes an action good 2. What is the right action to make if we want to do the good b. Virtue Ethics asks a different question 1. What makes a person good? 2. What types of dispositions/characteristics should we develop if we want to be a good person? c. Shifts the focus away from a law that we have to obey to a more future looking perspective 1. We all come from different places and have our own strengths 2. How do we all move towards becoming a better person 3. Future-looking not focused on law-obeying. II. Book I: Ends and Goods A. Chapter 1 1. Description: Chapter 1 proposes that all action seeks some good and that the good is the end that every action seeks. Action is teleological (end + logic). Generally, these ends are multitudinous and often they conflict; thus, one way of determining which of these ends are more choiceworthy is by determining which end is less subordinate. An end that is subordinate to a higher end is done for the sake of that end, and therefore there is a hierarchy of good ends. 2. First principle: All action seeks some end. a. Whenever we do anything, we seek some end i. If we go fishing, what are we seeking: to catch fish. ii. If we are taking a class, we are seeking to gain credit from it. b. We often seek things that we don t find. 1. Example: I am seeking a perfect wife, but I may not find it because it might not exist, or because I am looking in the wrong way. 2. Example: I want a good grade in this class, but I may not go about actualizing it in the right way. c. Plurality of ends i. Health, Wealth, Family, Educational Success d. Some ends may be conflicting i. Health and Pleasurability (e.g. smoking) ii. For Kant: Pleasurable Consequences and Doing Good. e. Our actions have a purpose/directionality even if we aren t aware at the time what it is. 1

i. Sometimes we don t know why we behave a certain way; we don t have total command of the meaning of our actions. ii. We often try to explain it later in life. iii. Our behavior is animated by a vague sense of purpose. 3. Second principle: The good is that which all actions seek. a. Whenever we are aiming to do an action, we are trying to do good. b. We might not necessarily be cognizant of what that good is or it isn t clear. c. Objection: Hitler was not trying to do good with his actions. i. Reply: Guided by an idea of what the world should be like; tried to bring it about. Action guided by a wrong idea of how to obtain the good. Aristotle says every action and decision seems to seek some good. ii. Aristotle is not affirming that every action we do actually is good; action only seeks it. 4. Plurality of Ends and Notion of Means and Ends Creates a Hierarchy of Good Ends a. Some ends are more important than others. i. Health more important than new tires on your car. b. Some actions are done for the sake of something else (done as a means to an end). c. Actions are put in a hierarchy, whereby one action is deemed more choiceworthy because it is the aim of our action. d. Creates the notion of subordination. i. Attending class subordinate action to Getting Your Degree ii. Engineering of Medical Equipment Medicine Health iii. Making horseshoes, bridle-making, etc. Horseriding e. Conclusion: We have some ends that we think are more important than others. Some ends serve others. B. Chapter 2: The Highest Good 1. Description Chapter 2 proposes the supposition that there is some action that is not done for the sake of another end; namely, a best good. Aristotle contends that knowledge of this good would provide assistance in directing action towards it (e.g. archers aiming at a bullseye). Finally, Aristotle contends that it is political science (whereby Ethics is a subset) which stands as the controlling science, directing all others to the human good. 2. The Best Good a. All action seeks some end AND all action seeks some good. b. Hierarchy: We also know that some actions are done for the sake of something else. 2

c. The Best Good: The limit of our action; that which all action seeks as its ultimate end; every aim/end is subordinate to this aim/end. 3. Benefit in Knowing this Best Good a. Aristotle seeks to give us an outline of this good. i. Knowing where the bull s eye is allows for better aim. ii. Knowing your degree would allow you to only take courses that are relevant to obtaining the degree. iii. Knowing this ultimate aim (the best good) would allow us to direct our behavior better. C. Chapter 3: The Method of Political Science 1. Description Chapter 3 contends for a general and fallible outline on the good. Aristotle contends that the following is not an exact account of what we should and should not do, but a guide for different situations. Further, Aristotle contends that it is reason and not moral intuition or feelings that benefits us in our attempt to reach the end. Reason is the proper faculty for benefiting from further experience because it allows us to make use of our knowledge and our immediate feelings. 2. A General and Fallible Outline a. Aristotle seeks to give truths that hold roughly. i. Some things we associate as being good don t always result in good consequences a. Generosity could result in getting killed. b. Wealth could result in being destroyed by your enemy. ii. Let s get a general idea of what this ultimate good is. b. In Search of a General Good i. Doesn t have to be without exception ii. When we ask the question what makes us a good person, we want a rough way to determine this. 3. The use of Reason to Determine what the Good is a. Like Kant, Aristotle spurns the use of feelings when trying to determine how we should act. b. We should rely on our reason for guiding our action. c. Reason as a practical faculty, not for the attainment of theoretical knowledge, but for directing behavior. d. Unlike Kant, our use of reason requires us to draw upon our experience and consider the consequences of our behavior. e. Reference past mistakes and use our reasoning capacities to anticipate future consequences D. Chapter 4: Common Beliefs 1. Description 3

Chapter 4 contends that all knowledge and decision pursues some good and that the highest good sought is happiness (eudaimonia), which is equivalent to living well. Aristotle notes the disparate views of happiness and notes its tendency to change depending upon the situation. 2. What is this highest Good a. Happiness (eudaimonia εὐδαιμονία) i. When Aristotle uses the word happiness, he really means eudaimonia (εὐδαιμονία), which is more equivalent to human flourishing than just having a smile on your face. ii. He writes they suppose that living well and doing well are the same as being happy (I.4.2). b. What is Happiness? i. Disparate Views on the matter a. Utilitarianism defined it as pleasure with the absence of pain. b. Aristotle contends that some people define it as wealth or honor. ii. Often tends to be defined by the situation we are in. a. Cancer patient Happiness is being healthy b. Poor person Happiness is Wealth 2. Whatever it is, we seem to acknowledge that it is real a. We have an unclear idea of what it is, but we know it because our behavior seems to be directed by our indeterminate idea of it. b. It is the limit of our search. The remainder of the chapter tries to give us a better idea of it. E. Chapter 5: The Three Lives 1. Moved to Ch.7 Discussion F. Chapter 6: The Platonic Form of the Good Skipped G. Chapter 7: An Account of the Human Good 1. Part 1 a. Description Chapter 7 contends that the good of an action is found in the end of it. Aristotle contends that the best end, or the best good, is one that is complete and self-sufficient. Happiness fits both of these conditions. 1. Complete: do not seek it for the sake of something else (final + inclusive). a. First, happiness is complete (or final/telos) and therefore more choiceworthy because we do not pursue happiness for the sake of something else. i. It is the final end of all action. 4

1. Action: We get the milk out of the refrigerator (Incomplete not final) done for the sake of something else (to drink it). 2. Action: We have a child done for the sake of something else, our own happiness or to contribute to the world. ii. It is final, but also inclusive of all our action. 1. Action: Get a new car (incomplete not inclusive of our other final ends). We do actions for other reasons. iii. Happiness as complete implies that it is the most choiceworthy of ends. 1. Example: If we had to choose between a diseased heart and a strong one, we would choose the more excellent of the two. 2. Example: If we had to choose between having wealth or having a perfectly content and fulfilling life. 2. Self-sufficient: with it we desire no more (isn t in need of something additional it lacks nothing). Nothing is missing. [Able to provide for oneself without the help of others; independent]. a. Second, eudaimonia is self-sufficient not because it allows us to be free of our neighbors but because it doesn t require further supplementation from without. i. Eudaimonia isn t reliant upon something else. With it we are perfectly content, not in need of something else. 1. Example 1: Car without gas isn t self-sufficient it is in need of something to function. 2. Example 2: Person without a heart or a diseased part isn t self-sufficient in need of a part or a cure in order to function properly. 3. Example 3: Person without a purpose in life, runs around recklessly, nothing to guide their behavior in the right way in need of a plan for life. ii. Something self-sufficient is content with what they have, nothing is forced upon them. There is no need for them to seek anything else. iii. Not mere solitary (isolationist) behavior. Aristotle isn t telling us that happiness consists of hiding away from the world, making our own clothes and being entirely self-dependent. We draw upon what we have and are content with it. 2. Part 2 a. Description 5

Chapter 7 examines the best good by accounting the special function of the human. After eliminating two possibilities: (1) to live and/or survive and (2) to perceive, Aristotle contends that it is the special function of the human in the special activity of reasoning. Further, the best good then is further illustrated by the following argument: b. Aristotle s Function Argument: Function of Human Being 1. The function of a weaver is to weave, an excellent weaver weaves excellently. 2. The function of a murderer is to murder; the function is manifested excellently when the murderer does the best job (s)he can. 3. Function of lawyer, soldier, banker, robber, et alia. 4. Special Function of the human being? a. One that distinguishes the human from all other individuals. b. Living Life of Nutrition or Growth i. Life where we develop, eat, procreate, expand. ii. Shared with other animals c. Sense Perception Life of Sensory State i. Life where we experience certain sights, sounds, tastes ii. Shared with other mammals. d. Life of the special action of Reason i. The capacity to think and make calculated decisions based upon evaluating evidence ii. Involves the capacity to elicit a command and obey that command. 5. A Live Function a. Not merely s Happiness is an activity not a mere possession i. When we are happy, we are in a state of action: living well. ii. Aristotle s Olympic Analogy iii. The gold medal doesn t always go to the best runner or athlete, but to the one that competes the best on that day. iv. Happiness is not a state for those who sit in a state of idleness or slumber, but who actually go out and live excellently. c. Virtuous Human Being i. Notion of virtue: a trait or character, manifested in habitual activity, that is sought and is indicative of excellent action. a. A moral virtue is a habituated way of acting b. A behavior that is exemplary; something we seek to develop because it benefits ourselves and/or others. c. Synonymous with the notion of excellent action; something that we routinely perform but not necessarily in every single situation. i. Honesty: something we think is excellent, but not a behavior we think is exemplary in every single situation. 6

1 Discussed in EN x 6-8. ii. Function of a harpist is to play the harp, and the function of a good harpist is to play the harp well. iii. Function of a human being is to live (to act) in accordance with reason, the function of a good human being is to live in accordance with reason excellently. a. P1: The special function of the human is in the activity of reasoning. b. P2: The best good (superior) of an action is found in its perfection. c. The best good of a human is to reason well. d. Different Lives and The Contemplative Life i. Chapter 5 outlines four lives (a) the swine, (b) the politician, (c) the intellectual, and (d) the moneymaker s life in an effort to reach a conception of the good. a. Swine: The life of gratification is rejected since it reduces man to a grazing animal, one ignores his intellectual capacities. b. Politician (Living only for praise): The life of the politician is rejected since it is too superficial, reducing happiness to the pursuit of honor. This is rejected because it relies more heavily on the individuals honoring than the individual honored and because we are judged good on the basis of something we do (some virtue), and not simply for being graced with honor. Aristotle stresses the need for us to be judged on the basis of our actions and not on the basis of some potential behavior (being asleep). c. Moneymaker s Life: Certainly not the one we are after, wealth is only for the use of something else. d. Contemplative (Living for a better understanding of the higher end): Finally, the life of study is granted as the good life. 1 ii. We said that the best life for an individual is one of study; this hinges on Aristotle s position that the special function of the human is reason. iii. Another reason is that the happy life seems to require leisure (not idleness or inactivity, but actions we engage in because we want to, something not forced upon us); the opportunity to freely choose a life without being worn away by the requirements of your profession. a. War Hero: denies leisure because it requires that we are in a continually state of war and requires that we have an enemy. When all the enemies have been defeated, we need to turn our friends into enemies. b. Politician: denies leisure because it requires we continually act for the sake of more power. Demands that we seek more and more 7

honor. We have to make concessions and cannot do what it is right because we have to vie for votes. c. Life of Study: activity of investigation is enjoyable in itself. We engage in study because we find that the pursuit is worthwhile; we don t engage it because it is forced upon us. i. Corruptions of the life of study: technological considerations, teaching, studying because your profession requires it. ii. Life of study is not synonymous with being an academic, but the part of our life where we pursue our interests. H. Chapter 8: Defense of the Account of the Good 1. Confusion about what Eudaimonia Is a. We shouldn t distinguish that which is best, finest, and most pleasant b. Eudaimonia is all of these things wrapped into one c. Excellent action that we enjoy; we are great at something and enjoy doing the great action. 1. It is the most choiceworthy way of living 2. It is pleasing in itself a. We find pleasure in what we love. i. Lover of horses finds pleasure in horses ii. Lover of wisdom finds pleasure in wisdom iii. Lover of living well finds pleasure in doing just that. 3. Living well is its own reward. a. Aristotle thinks that when you act justly, you have to want to do it in order to be just. When you act in this way, you, in addition, find pleasure in doing it. b. In the same way, living excellently/virtuously we gain pleasure from it; No need for additional pleasure 2. The Need of Happiness for External Support a. Additional Resources We Need i. Friends, Wealth, Political Power ii. Nutrition and Shelter iii. Beauty and Health b. Aristotle thinks that it is difficult to live well if we don t have certain resources. c. Aristotle doesn t distinguish living well from living pleasantly. Thinks they are bound into one. I. Chapter 9: How is Happiness Achieved 1. Happiness obtained through Learning and Attention a. Contemplative Activity (as mentioned) 2. Not mere fortune, but somewhat reliant upon it. 3. We determine a happy life at the end a. Reversals of Fortune 8

b. Tragedy J. Chapter 10: Can We be Happy during our Lifetimes\ K. Chapter 11 1. Skipped L. Chapter 12 1. Skipped M. Chapter 13 N. Reading and Study Questions 1. In Book I, Chapter 1 of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle writes that there are a plurality of ends, often these many time conflict, how does Aristotle determine which of these is the better good? 2. In Book I, Chapter 2 of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle contends that of the good would carry great weight for our way of life, and would make us better able, like archers who have a target to aim at, to hit the right mark. 3. A or B: In Book I, Chapter 4 of the Nicomachean Ethics, does Aristotle contend that (a) there is one universal idea of happiness or (b) that happiness shifts depending upon the context. 4. In Book I, Chapter 5 of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle outlines the life of the moneymaker and three other lives in order to gain a better conception of the good, what are they: (a) the life of gratification (the swine), (b) the life of political activity, (c) the life of study. 5. In Book I, Chapter 7 of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle contends that happiness is both self-sufficient and complete. 6. In Book I, Chapter 7 of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle contends that happiness is complete, what does he mean by this? O. Exercises 1. In Book I, Chapter 7 of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle contends that it is the special function of the human is in the activity of reasoning. Aristotle seems to think that this is the unique function for the human individual. Reread Aristotle s rejection of sense-perception and survival and explain whether you agree with his assessment? Do you think that the special function of the human is something other than reasoning. And, if so, what is it and why? 2. P. III. Book II a. Aristotle s Doctrine of the Mean (Bk II. Ch.6, Sec.4-5). 1. How do we isolate what allows us to perform our function well? 9

2. How do we get at virtue? a. We know that an expert human is one who reasons well b. One who contemplates, but how else do they act excellent c. What else comprises eudaimonia 3. We Figure This Out Through a Dialectic / Negation a. What Virtue Is Not i. Vice: a trait or character, manifested in habitual activity, that is not sought and is not indicative of excellent action. ii. Not Excessive Behavior a. Not merely having too much of something, but overindulgence i. Example: Not the quantity of food you have, but the actual eating of too much food (Gluttony) ii. Example: iii. Not Deficient Behavior a. Not merely having too little of something, but underindulgence. i. Example: Not the quantity of food you have, but the actual eating of too little food (Starvation) b. Virtue is the Mean between Excess and Deficiency i. Having just the right amount of something, ii. We put action on a continuum. a. X ---------------------- Y b. Move towards the Middle iii. Attention to the Context/Situation/Person involved a. Example: Not every needs to eat the same amount, a small gymnast needs lest food then a linebacker. b. Example: Honesty: we ought to be honest in most circumstances, but sometimes it seems complementary to fudge the truth, depending on the situation. B. Courage as a Virtue 1. Excess: Foolhardiness 2. Deficiency: Cowardice 3. Medium: Courage C. Generosity as a Virtue 1. Excess: Extravagance 2. Deficiency: Stinginess 3. Medium: Generosity: We ought to be as generous as possible with our resources as is consistent with satisfying our lives in a minimal way. b. Chapter 1: How a Virtue of Character is Acquired c. Chapter 2: Habituation d. Chapter 3: The Importance of Pleasure and Pain e. Chapter 4: Virtuous Action versus Virtuous Character f. Chapter 5: Virtue of Character: Its Genus g. Chapter 6: Virtue of Character: Its Differentia 10

h. Chapter 7: The Particular Virtues of Character i. Chapter 8: Relations between Mean and Extreme States j. Chapter 9: How Can We Reach the Mean? 11