Psychology and Religion Revision Booklet Name:
Sigmund Freud s challenges to religious belief Freud believed that religion was an illusion based on wish fulfilment. He believed that in certain circumstances the human mind will create beliefs and images to satisfy its most basic longings and desires. Religion is created by the mind to help us overcome: 1. Inner psychological conflict (religion as a collective neurosis) 2. Conflict between our nature and civilization (Oedipus Complex / Primal Horde) 3. Helplessness and fear of natural forces 1. Religion as a collective neurosis Freud s work with his patients suffering from hysteria led him to conclude that as well as conscious areas, the mind also contains unconscious parts which we cannot normally access. Through his work on hypnosis and dreams he realised that the unconscious mind comprises a vast store of information about events which we consider long forgotten. He went on to suggest that unpleasant memories which are trapped in the unconscious can surface later in the form neurotic and hysterical behaviour. Freud believed that neurotics perform ritual actions, like obsessive hand washing, in the same way each time. If the ritual is broken or is not performed correctly, the neurotic feels an overwhelming sense of guilt. In the same way, religious people perform religious rituals; if they are not performed, they too feel guilty. Freud described religion as a universal obsessional neurosis. He believed that there are links between religion and the obsessive actions in sufferers from nervous affections. Freud s conclusion is that religion itself was a form of neurosis, caused, as in the case of other hysterias, by traumas deep within the mind or psyche. The central and perhaps most startling feature of Freud s argument was his belief that the trauma in question was invariably sexual in nature.
2. Conflict between our nature and civilization: Religion as a response to the Oedipus Complex The Oedipus Complex: The suckling child is used to having its mother s sole attention. However, there is an already present rival in the form of the father. The child develops acute feelings of jealously and hatred. These feelings lead to the desire to kill the father. These feelings are combined however, with great respect and fear for the father. This combination of jealously, hatred, respect and fear results in a deeply traumatic sense of guilt. This desire to possess the mother and the ambivalence towards the father is the Oedipus Complex. Freud feels that the Oedipus complex led to an act in the past, the guilt of which has been passed on to all human beings. This guilt is repressed and so manifests itself in the neurotic behaviour of the religious person. In his famous book, Totem and Taboo, Freud describes the past act which led to the repressed guilt shared by all humanity. He draws on the ideas of Charles Darwin, who suggested that primitive men lived in hordes like apes. These hordes were ruled over by a powerful father who had many children and many wives. The father was jealous of the sons, as he wanted all of the women for himself. He drove them out of the tribe to prevent them from having sex with any of the women. The sons felt a mixture of feeling towards the father. They felt admiration for him, as the most powerful man who could perform the act of sex with the women that they themselves wanted to sleep with. However, they also felt bitterness, as he was preventing their sexual desires from being fulfilled. (Oedipus Complex).
The Terrible Act - Animism One day the sons get together and kill the father. They eat his body as they want to absorb his strength and power. They feel incredibly guilty for the crime they have committed. They create a totem animal to worship as a father substitute. The animal is sacrificed each year in the special totem meal which commemorates the original crime of killing and devouring the father. For Freud, this act is the beginnings of religion. Freud believed that feelings of extreme guilt cause humans to create idols which can be prayed to and worshiped to appease guilt. This first stage in the creation of religion is called animism. The guilt of the action of killing the father is passed on to all future generations. This guilt is repressed but is too powerful to stay hidden. Therefore, it shows itself through the collective neurotic behaviour of the religious. Development into religion The second stage following the terrible act was a move toward the concept of religion. As time passed, the totem proved unsatisfactory. As longing for the father grew, so did his reputation. Eventually he took on divine significance and became transformed into the gods of religions. Freud points out that the gods of religion are treated with the same ambivalence as was the original father figure, proving that there is a connection. A favourite example is the Christian God who is treated with great reverence. Every now and then, however, he is ceremonially killed and eaten in the Communion feast. This example, provides an exact link with the animist ritual killing (sacrifice) of the totem.
3. Religion as wish fulfilment and a reaction against helplessness Freud argues that the main characteristic of an illusion is that it is derived from human wishes. There is no real proof or evidence for religion and yet sensible men and women continue to believe. For Freud, this suggests that religion persists because it contains within it the wishes of those men and women which are so important to them that they cancel out any doubts they may have about the truth of the religion itself. Freud feels that there are three things in our lives which make us feel helpless but which we wish to control: i) The external forces of nature which threaten to destroy humanity (floods, earthquakes) Freud believed that humans wish to defend themselves against the power of nature by creating religious ideas. For example, the forces of nature might be turned into gods/goddesses who can be worshipped and controlled. Thus, religion can help people to deal with suffering and feelings of helplessness in their lives. Even death is not to be feared for the religious, who regard it as the start to a new life where those who have had a good but painful life will be rewarded.
ii) The internal forces of nature human instincts (incest, cannibalism, murder) Freud felt that every human being faces a conflict between what society expects from him/her and his/her own human instincts. For example, it is human instinct, Freud believed, to have sex with family members, and yet society declares that this is wrong and labels it as incest. He felt that this leads us to feel mixed emotions towards society. In one way, we are glad that things like murder and cannibalism are not present in our society, but at the same time, we also feel hostile towards society for preventing us from following our basic human instincts. This conflict leads to neurosis and feelings of helplessness. Religion, according to Freud, helps us to deal with this helplessness, as it teaches that God is watching over us and will make up for our suffering. For example, a human may feel that they are helpless to prevent their own aggression. However, religion prevents aggression by introducing ideas of justice and protecting the weak. It encourages believers to love their enemies rather than being aggressive towards them. Religion also gives humans a conscience which prevents them from acting on their instincts, promising that controlling the instincts in this way will be rewarded in the afterlife. iii) The longing for a father figure Freud felt that childhood was characterised by a feeling of helplessness. In childhood, one is comforted by the protection of the father. In adulthood, humans are still helpless against the forces of nature and the conflict they face between their instincts and the expectations of society. In a response to this helplessness, humans respond by turning to God as a supreme father figure, seeking the same comfort they felt in their childhood due to the protection of their own father. For Freud, therefore, believing in a father like God who will protect us from the evils of nature and our own human instincts and who will compensate for our earthly suffering in the afterlife is nothing more than wishful thinking, an illusion.
Carl Gustav Jung s challenges to religious belief Religion as an expression of the collective unconscious The collective unconscious is present in every human being, regardless of their personal experiences. It is made up of archetypes which Jung describes as, identical psychic structures common to all. Jung believed that the collective unconscious is the oldest part of the human mind. All humans have the same ideas and images contained within their collective unconscious. These ideas and images come to humans in dreams and in their concept of God. For example, Jung found that many people liken their god to light. Therefore, he concluded that the relationship between light and religion is part of the collective unconscious. All humans share a common idea of God as it is part of the collective unconscious, shared by all humanity. Archetypes Jung believes that every human has archetypes which are a priori (gained prior to experience). Examples of archetypes include the mother figure and the hero figure. Jung states that the archetypes which make up the collective unconscious are unconscious organisers of ideas. The fact that all humans have the same archetypes means that they are likely to form similar ideas about things, like God. For Jung, the five most important archetypes are: 1. Persona 2. Shadow 3. Anima 4. Animus 5. Self
The Persona The Persona is what we show to the world it is a mask. We hide the parts of our characters which we think people won t like and which society does not like and show off the parts which are pleasing to society. The Shadow The Shadow is made up of the parts of our personalities which we do not believe are acceptable in society and therefore are not suitable as part of the Persona. Anima and Animus The Anima is the feminine side of the male. The Animus is the masculine side of the female. Males are keen to include the masculine elements of their personality in the Persona, but repress their feminine characteristics. Likewise, women have a feminine Persona and repress the masculine parts of their personalities. The women that a man is attracted to will have the characteristics of his Anima; those he is not attracted to will have characteristics which conflict with his Anima and the same for women. The Self Jung believed that the Self is the most important part of the psyche. The Self seeks the integration of all of the parts of our characters. It guides us through life. It can be seen as the God within, the mystical part of humans or the soul.
God as an archetype the God within Jung felt that the images and ideas of God which humans have are archetypal. This means that all human beings are born with a tendency to come up with religious ideas of God. Jung s term the God within refers to his view that God is an inner psychological experience. God for Jung is an expression of the collective unconscious. The God-archetype, like all archetypes, is ineffable since it comes from a part of the mind about which nothing concrete may be known. Jung therefore believed that an experience of any archetype would count as a religious experience because all the archetypes are equally ineffable. Jung concludes that God and the whole entity of religion, exists as a psychic reality; that is, to those who experience the effects of the archetypes, God is real. However, nothing can be proved about his existence or nature outside the mind. God and religion can therefore perform the role of maintaining the balance of the mind and prevents neuroses through a process Jung calls individuation.
The Process of Individuation or Quest for Integration Individuation is a process humans go through to become a separate individual. According to Jung, to maintain health, all the features of the personality need to be integrated. For example, there needs to be a balance between the conscious mind and the unconscious mind. There also needs to be a balance among the different archetypes. It is the failure to maintain this balance that is the main cause of mental disorder and neurotic illness. For instance, someone who has an excess of mental energy concentrated only on the unconscious mind will appear disconnected from their surroundings, since they will be aware chiefly of the images generated by the unconscious. For Jung, our lives are split into two parts: 1. The first part of our lives (up to the age of 35/40) is about constructing a socially acceptable Persona and repressing parts of our personalities. 2. The second part of our lives (35/40+) is about embracing our selves, asking spiritual and philosophical questions about life and the purpose of existence. Individuation and its relationship with religion The process of individuation could be considered a religious process. Jung believed that the archetype of the Self and the archetype of God cannot easily be distinguished from one another. However, the Self and God are not the same thing and the Self is not there to replace God. They are linked because they are both impossible to describe and understand. Jung felt that the symbols of God and the Self are both symbols of unity. Individuation is about wholeness and totality: these are also the goals of religion.
How do Freud s theories challenge religious belief? Freud argued that a believer could counter his ideas by stating that removing the illusion of religion and the comfort it brings to many people is cruel. Freud conceded that if religion brought people nothing but happiness, then this point would be valid. However, for Freud, religion is purely negative. It does not prevent people from rebelling against society and religion can be manipulated by people to justify social injustices. He believed that religion is used to oppress people and stated that humans have overrated its necessity for mankind. For Freud, the illusion of religion prevents humans from maturing. Humans need, he argued, to recognise religion for an illusion in order to make social progress. Religion is holding humanity back and it is only by rejecting religion that humans can progress. Rather than being satisfied with their easy to bear religious lives, humans should put their energies into their life on earth so that they can become mature. The evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins agrees with Freud and believes that religion has prevented the development of the sciences by refuting their claims and offering myths instead of facts. How does religion respond to Freud? Freud does not provide any proof against religion. God could exist in reality and he cannot prove that this is not the case. Many believers would say that religion does give them happiness in their lives and that, far from promoting social injustice; religious groups actively strive to promote equality in the world. Freud does not really understand the religious experience. He himself admits that he is not capable of relating to those who claim to have had ecstatic and mystical experiences. Believers feel that these experiences are extremely important and it could be said that Freud is wrong to dismiss something that he does not understand,
How do Jung s theories challenge religious belief? Jung believed that religion is a positive phenomenon which leads to good mental health. This means that his ideas do not challenge religious belief in the same way as those of Freud. Unlike Freud, Jung does not believe that religion is a negative neurosis. Jung felt that religion is positive as it unlocks the collective unconscious which is therapeutic for the individual. Jung felt that religion is constantly evolving by helping to develop the personality. It helps to integrate a person s conscious and unconscious life and nurtures a person through the different stages they go through in life. Therefore, Freud is wrong to label religion as infantile it is an evolving, nurturing processes which is beneficial to those who believe in it. Jung believed that Freud was wrong to reduce religion to the sexual libido. He felt that in doing this, Freud had misunderstood the function of religion and had failed to recognise the collective unconscious which is the part of a human that allows him/her to know something of the meaning of life
Has God been explained away by psychology? Yes Freud believed that religion is nothing but an illusion. It is a human construct which is created by the mind to help us to overcome our fears of the natural world and our own psychological conflicts. Freud felt that humans must reject any religious belief in order to mature. He believed that just as the beliefs of obsessional neurotics are not based on any fact, so religion, which does not have any firm proof, should be rejected. Therefore, from this view God has been explained away by psychology. Freud believed that religion results from the actions of the primordial horde. We long for a father figure and feel guilty for the original crime of killing the father and so construct God to ease our guilt and to prevent feelings of helplessness. Freud has shown that God could merely be a human creation intended to ease our lives. For Jung, God is a shared archetype and the archetypes exist only in the mind. They are not physical, tangible realities so therefore it shows God is not a physical reality but a construct of the mind. No Freud does not provide any actual proof against God or religion. He himself admitted that God could exist objectively even if his ideas are true there could be a God who exists even if humans construct a God image to help them to cope with life. Jung argues that it is not the job of Psychology to attempt to explain away God. Psychologists, he argues, should be concerned with the effects that belief in God has on a person. Whether or not God exists objectively is not an answerable question, especially from the viewpoint of Science and Psychology which should be concerned only with empirical fact. John Hick argues that Freud s work could be seen to be beneficial to religion. He feels that Freud s work on the father figure may have uncovered one of the ways in which God reveals Himself to the human mind. Jung feels that belief in God can have an extremely positive effect, but he does not feel that this proves or disproves the existence of God. The idea of God is to be found in the archetypes of the collective unconscious, but God could (or could not) exist independently of this. For Jung, religion is a part of human nature which can be studied like any other part this does not necessarily undermine religion or God.
The strengths and weaknesses of the psychological view of religion Freud s Strengths Freud was immensely intelligent. His work greatly influenced the Western understanding of the mind. The idea that people imagined gods to represent the good and bad in their own lives and personalities was not a new one. It was held by many others in Freud s time. In The Natural History of Religion, David Hume had argued that humans had constructed religion in order to help them to deal with the misery of life and the dread of death. In The Essence of Christianity, Feuerbach states that religion is a childlike condition. He felt that it is an illusion which comes from feelings of separation from oneself and the world. These feelings of separation lead to the qualities which we ourselves lack being projected on to a God. Freud s strengths lie in the fact that many could relate to his ideas about religion and psychology in their own lives. Freud s Weaknesses The Historical and Anthropological Evidence Freud s theory of the horde was based on the ideas of Darwin. However, they were just ideas. It is now generally accepted that there was more variety in primitive societies than Freud suggests. For example, not all tribes had totem animals. This suggests that Freud s idea that guilt was handed down from generation to generation is incorrect. Therefore, he is wrong to suggest that religion is based on this guilt. Malinowski and the Oedipus Complex Malinowski is a famous Sociologist who discredits Freud s Oedipus complex. He argues that the family is not the same in every society and so the Oedipus Complex cannot be universal. If it is not universal, then it cannot be the cause of all religion. For example, in Trobriands, the family is matrilineal and the Father has nothing to do with the upbringing of the children. Therefore, there is no Oedipus Complex there and their religion must require a different explanation.
Freud uses a narrow selection of evidence Freud focuses on religions with male deities such as Judaism and Christianity. He ignores religions with important female goddesses, such as Hinduism and religions which do not have a deity at all, such as Buddhism. He generalised the results of his five case studies, assuming that the Oedipus complex detected in those cases was in fact at work everywhere. Freud constructed a theory to explain the societies and religions with which he was familiar, and ignoring those of others. Freud has a negative bias towards religion Donald Winnicott argues that religion is positive, as it helps humans to adapt to their environment by offering comfort and familiarity. Ana-Maria Rizzuto argues that religion is no more of an illusion than science and that Freud is wrong to suggest that science has the sole claim to truth. She accuses Freud of replacing the illusion of religion with the illusion of science. Freud s refusal to accept religion could stem from his own religious upbringing and also the impact religion played in the Nazi regime.
Jung s Strengths As Jung provides a theory of religion and psychology which is less damaging to religion, he has been praised by religious thinkers: [Jung has] rediscovered the religious and the sacred and got rid of an overwhelming rationalism. (Raymond Hostie Jesuit theologian) [Jung is] one who knows so much about the depths of the human soul (Paul Tillich Theologian) [By studying Jung] we can gain an insight into the ways by which men become aware of God. (Charles Hanna Jungian) Jung has highlighted that religion can have a positive effect on a person s mental health and well-being. A particular strength of this approach is the belief that every human, no matter what their culture, has a basic understanding of the God archetype. If this is true then Jung s theory of the God archetype gains support from well over a billion people. Religion helps to balance the unconscious and conscious mind which leads to happiness and self-fulfilment. This theory is in line with many religious ideas about God. Becoming closer to God and having a relationship with God leads to happiness and self fulfilment. The Theory of Archetypes Jung s Weaknesses Geza Roheim argues that the theory of archetypes is unnecessary. As humans share the same experiences, such as dependence on parents, it is not surprising that they construct similar myths. Also, some religious myths come from the experiences of a particular community and so it seems unlikely that they are born out of an idea which is present in all humans. Also, many people do not believe in God. Jung himself countered this argument by stating that atheism itself is a religion. It seems that he will not allow anything to counter his ideas. If his theory is not open to falsification, some would argue that it is meaningless. Jung s idea of religious experience Martin Buber argues that an experience which takes place in the mind, rather than externally to the individual, is not a religious experience. Jung has also been criticised for suggesting that any vision is religious. Perhaps he has failed to understand the uniqueness of a religious experience and the effect that they have on religious believers.
Individuation Is this a religious process? If it is concerned with the Self, is it really about God? For example, Jung argues that the image of Christ is a symbol of wholeness to help balance our minds. However, for a religious believer, Christ is so much more than this. He is an historical person and the Son of God, not just a symbol of the mind. Furthermore, how does Jung account for people with no religious belief or affiliation who have balanced mental health? If his theory of individuation is to be accepted and linked to religion then everyone would need some form of religion in their lives; this is not the case. Reductionism In reducing religion to archetypes and the process of Individuation, has Jung actually damaged religion? In stating that religion is a subjective phenomenon, does he suggest that God is not an objective reality? Jung, instead of promoting the value of religion has instead reduced it to a simple idea. Our minds have projected images that we associate certain archetypes in the case of religion the archetype is God. Therefore, God is a projection of our mind and not valuable. Instead, Jung is offering a similar argument to Freud in that religion is simply delusion and wish-fulfilment.
Is there a relationship between religion and mental health? Yes Freud believed that religion is damaging to mental health. He felt that it is a neurosis and likened religious behaviour to that of obsessional neurotics. He believed that religion is an expression of guilt and inner turmoil and that it would never allow an individual to be free from feelings of guilt and helplessness. Religion must be rejected in order for humanity to mature. Thus, religion is seen as something which holds a person back and prevents them developing, which is clearly not conducive to good mental health. Although religion can prevent people from falling into neuroses Freud still believes it magnifies the problem of obessional neurosis. It can heighten the sense of guilt and fear toward the father figure which ultimately damaging to mental health. The modern psychologist John F. Schumaker believes that religion can foster an unhealthy level of guilt and reduce one s self esteem through beliefs such as sin. It can lead to a dependency on one s God, forcing people to conform rather than to forge their own purpose in life. It can also cause social division as well as fear of the prospect of judgment and punishment. No Religion is beneficial to many people. It helps them to feel happy and allows them to socialise with other people who share similar views, rather than being isolated and unhappy. It helps them to deal with difficult situations in life, such as loss of a loved one, giving them an outlet for their grief through prayer. Without the support of God and the church, peoples mental health might be adversely affected when facing these challenges of life. Jung had a more positive view. He felt that religion helps to maintain good mental health and that people without a faith are much more likely to suffer from mental illness. Religion, Jung argued, allows people to feel at one with themselves and to integrate all aspects of their personalities. Without this integration process mental health can be adversely affected. Religious leaders often visit the mentally ill to offer them support and comfort. They can help people to come out of depression by offering them someone to talk to and a religious community where they feel they belong. Many people turn to religion at difficult points in their lives, such as moving away from home to go to university, after having children, after the break-up of a relationship. Religion helps them to deal with these stages of life rather than slipping into mental illness.
Essay Questions January 2011 1. Explain how psychology has understood religion, with particular reference to: the Oedipus complex the theory of archetypes. Expect discussion of how the Oedipus complex is a major understanding of Freud s view of religion. Expect reference to the Oedipus complex as a universal sexual trauma (the terrible act) Candidates need to explain how this links to religion as universal and the concept of God. Expect candidates to explain archetypes in terms of the psyche (mind) creating images, especially the God archetype. The images of God are fundamental to the quest for integration, according to Jung. Maximum level 5 (23) if only one part answered. For level 6-7 candidates must show how psychology has used these ideas to understand religion. 2. Psychology has successfully explained God away. Assess this claim. Agree: Role of mind in religious belief Freud s idea of religion as universal obssesional neurosis. Religion meets psychological needs of people Freud s idea that religion is a defence mechanism created by the mind to overcome fears/guilt. Disagree: Expect critiques of Freud and Jung theories. E.g. challenge that religion is guilt based. Can the Oedipus complex be applied to everyone? Not all deities are male. The theory of archetypes criticised. Debate needs to be focussed around the focus - explaining God away.
June 2010 1) Examine Freud s view of religious belief. Collective Neuroses Worked with patients suffering from hysteria, two areas of the mind, conscious and unconscious. Unpleasant memories are stored in the unconscious. Neurotics perform ritual actions, religious people perform similar rituals. Religion is a universal obsessional neurosis Response to Oedipus Complex The primal horde. The terrible act. Development into religion Wish Fulfilment The external forces of nature which threaten to destroy humanity (floods, earthquakes). The internal forces of nature human instincts (incest, cannibalism, murder). The longing for a father figure 2) There is a strong relationship between religion and unbalanced mental health. To what extent do you agree with this view? Agree with view Freud religion is a neurosis and could be seen as a cause of mental illness. Can heighten guilt and reduce self esteem. Disagree with view Expect some critique of Freud s views. Freud saw that religion can bring comfort therefore can help mental health and / or source of religion as reasoned / objective. Candidates may also refer to Jung who had a positive view.
January 2010 1) Examine Jung s view of religion as an expression of the collective unconscious. Focus on what the collective unconscious is and how this is shown within people. Links should then be made to the theory of archetype with particular reference made to Jung s five main archetypes (persona, shadow, anima, animus and self) Focus then on the idea that God is himself an archetype which can be found in the collective unconscious. The link between God and the self and how this archetype can provide balance to a persons mental health. 2) Jung s view of religion challenges religious belief. Assess this claim. Support claim Religion seen in terms of inherited characteristics. Seems to reject external God. An experience which stems from internal may be questioned as being termed religious. If God is an archetype then he is merely a construct of the mind and has now physical or tangible form. Challenge to claim Jung s view is wrong (expect criticisms of Jung s view); focus on some of his weaknesses. Jung had positive view of religion. Sees religion as a valuable entity.
June 2009 1) Explain how psychology may challenge religious belief. Expect mainly Freud examples, e.g. Wish fulfilment; Oedipus complex; religion seen as a neurotic illness. Refer to Jung and his ideas about God as an archetype; or the process of individuation and how religion/god can help this process. Level 7 possible if only Freud s challenges are fully discussed. 2) Religion has been successful in responding to the challenges of psychology. To what extent do you agree? Agree Expect critiques of Freud s and / or Jung s theories and conclusions, e.g. challenge to view that religion is guilt based / attack on Oedipus complex / not all deities are male / Jung s theory of archetypes criticised. Some candidates may argue that psychology strengthens religion in that it depicts it as something positive, e.g. Jung. Disagree Explanation of the role of the mind to account for religion still strong. Gives new understanding of religion. Religion meets people s psychological needs psychological profile of religious people. There should be an appropriate evaluation. Expect some reference to to what extent.successful.
January 2009 1) Explain Jung s understanding of religion. Expect discussion about the collective unconscious and archetypes. Key terms may also include the shadow, the animus, anima, and the self. The terms need relating to the quest for integration and how this relates to religion and the spiritual journey. Maximum Level 4 if just identified and defined key words without relating them to the idea of integration and finding the self. 2) To what extent has God been explained away by Jung s views? In favour Expect discussion of criticisms of Jung s views such as many religions do not share common images. More developed evaluation might focus on how Jung saw God as an archetype and so rejected any idea of a relationship with God. Against For the opposing view expect discussion about Jung s positive view of religion and the spiritual journey. For Jung, to have a religious outlook was not about subscribing to a particular creed or belonging to a religious organisation. To experience the archetype of the self was seen as a numinous experience. Expect an appropriate evaluation in terms of to what extent.