George Soctomah's Hat WILLARD WALKER Wesleyan University Our information on eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Wabanaki chief raisings is derived from the "Wampum Records" of Sapiel Selmore, or Selmo, the last keeper of the Passamaquoddy wampums (Leavitt & Francis 1990), and from an anonymous account of a Penobscot chief raising in 1816 (Speck 1997:240-243, originally published in 1940). Selmo recited the Passamaquoddy Wampum Records in the late nineteenth century to Louis Mitchell, the Passamaquoddy tribal representative to the Maine State Legislature; and Mitchell converted them into written form. These records describe, among other things, the procedures occasioned by the death of a chief, the consequent gathering of delegations from the confederate tribes, the selection and inauguration of a new chief, the obligations imposed on the new chief and his captains, and the interaction of hosts and guests at chief raisings and other intertribal gatherings. According to the Wampum Records, a Wabanaki chief served for life and, when he died, his flagpole was cut down and burned "together with all his belongings: his implements, his bow, his ax, and his flag;" and he was mourned for one year (Leavitt & Francis 1990:41). Factional disputes among the Passamaquoddies led to the premature cutting of the chiefs pole in 1842. In 1848 the two factions agreed to separate, one staying at Sipayik (Pleasant Point) on the coast, the other moving to Motahkomikuk (Peter Dana Point) at Indian Township. Thereafter, each had its own chief and council. In the late nineteenth century, life tenure was discontinued in both bands and chiefs have since been elected for two- or four-year terms. Factional strife among the Penobscots culminated in about 1850, when their chiefs pole was prematurely cut and Bishop Fitzpatrick excommunicated three of its defenders (Eckstorm 1945:160, 170). This led to a bill, passed by the Maine State Legislature in 1866, providing that each of the two Penobscot factions might vote for a chief, but only in alternate years (Eckstorm 1945:159). Papers of the 34th Algonquian Conference, ed. H.C. Wolfart (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba, 2003), pp. 393-400.
394 WILLARD WALKER With the loss of life tenure, chiefs were less likely, of course, to die in office; but there is reason to believe that elaborated funeral and mourningritesfor elected chiefs persisted for many decades. Maggie Mitchell said, in 1969, that "they had a big funeral" in 1921, when Edmond Tomah died in office at Motahkomikuk. Delia Mitchell said, "I can remember that, whenever somebody like the governor died, they always had a black flag [to drape the coffin], sort of like a shawl." Then Maggie Mitchell said, "That's still here, in the church;" and, in response to a question, she said it was used only for chiefs. This led to a discussion of mourning rites. They said that the length of the mourning period varied with the age of the deceased. John Stevens said, "[They] usually give them a week or a month, sometimes as long as a year. I heard of people being honored a year." Men in mourning wore hats with black bands, which the relatives bought for them. Women wore arm bands and sometimes black veils. A small red dot painted on the forehead signaled the end of the mourning period. According to the Wampum Records, when a new chief was to be raised, delegations from the three other confederate tribes came to the village to "make their greetings" and take part in the selection and installation of the new chief. They made his flagpole and raised it; and one of the visiting chiefs set out the new chiefs clothes and medals and put them on him (Leavitt & Francis 1990:45). When the Penobscot chief, John Atteon, was inaugurated in 1816 at Indian Island, there was no Micmac delegation; but the chiefs and fifteen or twenty other principal men of both the Maliseet and Passamaquoddy tribes were present (Speck 1997:240-241). During the inauguration ceremony, the Quoddy Indians without stood around a standard, twenty feet in height, to and from the top of which, they alternately hoisted and lowered a flag, as each [Penobscot] was induced into office; at the same time and afterwards, firing salutes from a well-loaded swivel (Speck 1997:242). Atteon was installed in office by the Maliseet chief, who addressed him "from five to ten minutes," holding a wampum belt. Three other Maliseets, with wampums, addressed the new lieutenant governor and two new captains. Then the Maliseet chief addressed Atteon and his tribe in
GEORGE SOCTOMAH'S HAT 395 another speech and placed a "suspended medal, as a badge of investiture, about Atteon's neck..." The other three candidates, "after being shortly addressed by the three other [Maliseets], were invested by them with the ensigns in the same way" (Speck 1997:241-242). Elsewhere, Speck wrote that Penobscot armbands, brooches, headbands, and medals of coldbeaten silver were worn by the men. The brooches, he said, "range from one half to six inches in diameter and were etched. The larger ones were chiefs' insignia..." (1997:154). Mrs. W.W. Brown, writing in 1892, said that Constant intercourse with white neighbors has had its influence over the Wabanaki, and has changed nearly all of their customs, as it has their costumes. The ceremony which has undergone the least change as observed among the Passamaquoddies is the Rite of Chief-making, as the election and inauguration of governor is called (1892:57). She said that it was "customary to invite friends from neighboring tribes to attend the festivities" (1892:59); but the installing officer was a Passamaquoddy, the "Po-too-us-win" or spokesman for the chief. There is no mention of flags or flagpoles. "The ceremony usually took five days;" and the inauguration was held on the third day. A stand held the tribal wampum, the silver gorgets, and the chiefs hat. The new chief was told where to sit, and, after a silence lasting several minutes, the Po-too-us-win arose, and advancing to the chief, gave the following salutation: "You are now a great man; you have been chosen to lead us. You must have the dignity becoming to a chief. You must look after the welfare of your people. You must not let one do another an injury. You are now a great man. Chief, I salute you;" at the same time placing the hat on the chiefs head. Each of the captains then saluted him in much the same words. The Po-too-us-win hung a silver gorget on the chiefs neck, while outside of the wigwam the report of a gun announced to the tribe that the new chief was installed in office. After this the subordinate officers were installed and advised (Brown 1892:58). Frank Speck witnessed the inauguration of Piel Nicolar for a twoyear term as Penobscot governor in 1910, by which time, he said, the "elaborate rites" of earlier times had "degenerated into a shrunken ceremony" (1997:243). No Micmacs, Maliseets, or Passamaquoddies participated in the inauguration; and Speck mentions only one visitor other than
396 WILLARD WALKER himself, a visiting Sioux named Sherman Hawk (1997:245). Many of the earlier practices were preserved, however. Nicolar sat with the newly elected officers and also those of the departing administration about him. At the proper time one of the old councilors, a leading man of the tribe, addressed the assemblage, stating the purpose of the occasion... (Speck 1997:244). This was followed by two more speeches by ex-officers. Then the retiring chief gave a speech and hung the chiefs medal around Nicolar's neck. It was made of silver, attached to a ribbon, and was "bearing a facsimile of Andrew Jackson and dated 1827." There is no mention of a "chiefs hat" or flag, or firearms. George Soctomah said, in 1969, that, when he was inaugurated governor at Motahkomikuk in 1922, the only visitors were Passamaquoddies from Sipayik. "There was no outsiders, I mean like Penobscot Indians and Maliseet Indians." He said that Penobscots might come to Passamaquoddy inaugurations, but only if they were invited; and "that is something that never happened." There were White people present in 1922, however; "they always come... to a dance." The Indian Agent did not come. "The only time he attends would be election time. He was ballot clerk. The priest would be there if he was invited." Jimmie Mitchell said that new flagpoles were not made for newly elected chiefs; but George Soctomah said they had the flag up for chief raising in 1920 at Sipayik, the Indian flag, then the American flag over that, on the same flagpole... The governor kept the flag at Sipayik. When you are sworn in [as governor], you get the flag; and they put a cross on you. I had just a little cross of silver [in 1922]... it wasn't silver...it was aluminum, that's what I think, real light. It goes on a little ribbon. I don't remember what color it was. MORRIS BROOKS: "Generally red. I got a medallion over home. It's a red ribbon." GEORGE SOCTOMAH: "Red at one time, when it was new." MORRIS BROOKS: "Now it's brown." PHILOMENE DANA: "Thefirstone that had that cross was my grandfather, Sammy Tomah." IRENE NEWELL: "They used to have a cannon down by the shore behind George Stevens' house." GEORGE SOCTOMAH: "When the sakom gets the medallion, the cannon goes off."
GEORGE SOCTOMAH'S HAT 397 MAGGIE MITCHELL: "Also at weddings, [and they would]fireoff the cannon when the lieutenant gets his medallion." Maggie could not remember that any captain was ever installed, but she remembered seeing the sakom and the leptanet sitting in the middle of the hall when "Old Tomah Joe" put the medallions on them. DELIA MITCHELL: "I always heard that the old governor puts the medallion on the new governor." GEORGE SOCTOMAH: "If the governor dies, the lieutenant governor takes his place, if the people are willing. In that case they would call the governor from Sipayik up for the inauguration." MAGGIE MITCHELL: "The old governor gives the medallion to the new governor." GEORGE SOCTOMAH: "In 1922 the governor from Sipayik, William Neptune, came up." John Stevens said the Sipayik governor was not present at his inau guration. He was installed by George Dana, the retiring governor. DELIA MITCHELL: "When they put that cross on you, the one who does that tells you [something]." MORRIS BROOKS: "He went up; and he said something. I don't know DELIA MITCHELL: "YOU can't just put it on without saying anything." JOHN STEVENS: "George Dana [the out-going chief] gave a speech. He sort of preached to me [when I was inaugurated], what my duties was. He told me to help the people that I represent, or the people I live with, actually." According to the Wampum Records, after the new chief was told of his obligations, they walk to the long hall [qonotihkanok] to dance together. A chi drums, and then another chiefs wife wraps the new chief in a deerhide (Leavitt & Francis 1990:45). This custom seems to have lapsed; but Speck's elderly Penobscot informants remembered a "Chiefs Dance," performed after the installation ceremony, in which one old woman carrying a walking cane led a file of dancers, all women... They circled only once around the council room. This done, the chief to be inaugurated went to the leader and placed a good broadcloth blanket upon the old woman leader's shoulders, and the seven council men placed similar gifts upon the seven women danc-
398 WILLARD WALKER ers. These gifts were kept by the women as presents... (Speck 1997:243). Speck said of this dance that it had evidently not been performed "since sometime prior to 1870" (1997:243); but Mrs. Brown's 1892 account of a Passamaquoddy chief raising describes something very like it. She says that, after they ate, the people sat down in a circle around the room; and A drum was beat with short, sharp taps, very slowly atfirst... Then the door was burst open, and six women, chosen from among the visitors, entered dancing. As they passed before the chief, he threw a shawl over the head of thefirstone, the captains throwing shawls over the others. They danced three times around the room, still covered; then all present joined in the dance, the women leading. This is called "Moce-mayic-hapijic," or "women thanking for the chief." The shawls become the property of the women who dance, and are treasured as trophies. The old custom was to place masks over their faces. There are none of these masks in preservation, so they use shawls instead (Brown 1892:59). Mrs. Brown says that, before this dance, large wooden bowls of boiled beef and soup were brought in and placed in the center of the room; and the "Indians, sitting or kneeling about the bowls, ate the meat with their hands, and drank the soup from rudely shaped dishes made of birchbark." Meanwhile, the Po-too-us-win sang a greeting song and shook hands with each of the new officers. Then there was a series of improvised songs in praise of the meat, sung by the Po-too-us-win and the captains (Brown 1892:58). George Soctomah said, in 1969, that there was beef stew at his inauguration in 1922 and that this practice had continued until, "well, just recently - a few years ago." Many Passamaquoddies still remember the old cry used to call the people to a feast: kwalotewak 'all of you [bring] your dishes.' In Mrs. Brown's account the beef of a young ox was boiled in large kettles over an openfire. She says that "formerly, it was customary to use the flesh of a moose or caribou;" although roasted beef from "two fatted oxen" was served at John Atteon's inauguration in 1816 (Speck 1997:243). At the Passamaquoddy inauguration witnessed by Mrs. Brown "a stand held the tribal wampum, the silver gorgets, and the chiefs hat" (1892:58). The Po-too-us-win put the hat on the new chiefs head when
GEORGE SOCTOMAH'S HAT 399 he gave him the salutation. Then, after the captains gave their salutations, he hung the silver gorget on the new chiefs neck. The chiefs hat evidently consisted of a circle of vertical feathers attached to a headband. Such "hats" are worn by Penobscots in photographs on pp. 140, 143, and 154 of Speck (1997). According to Speck, the decorated headband with gull, great blue heron, eagle, or hawk feathers fastened stiffly upright all around was a common article of fancy dress - the coronet with rigid feathers (1997:143). Several examples of this form of headgear are shown in an 1887 photograph of a "Maliseet gathering at Kingsclear, New Brunswick, on Corpus Christi Day" (Erickson 1978:131). George Soctomah told me - sorrowfully, I thought - that he was the last one to be given the hat when he was inaugurated in 1922. Erickson (1978:134) provides some confirmation for this: a 1937 photograph of a Maliseet chief and a Passamaquoddy chief, both wearing Plains style headgear with horizontal feathers. George Soctomah did not live to see what I saw on the evening of 11 March 2002 on Channel 5 TV, Bangor. It was a contemporary Passamaquoddy chief wearing a coronet withrigidred feathers, a sign, perhaps, that the Wabanaki chiefs have reclaimed some of the authority lost by their 19th- and early 20th-century predecessors. REFERENCES Brown, W. W. 1892. Chief-making among the Passamaquoddy Indians. Journal of American Folk-Lore 5(16):57-59. Eckstorm, Fannie Hardy. 1945. Old John Neptune and other Maine Indian shamans. Portland, Maine: Southworth-Athoensen Press. Erickson, Vincent O. 1978. Maliseet-Passamaquoddy. Handbook of North American Indians, v. 15: Northeast, ed. by Bruce Trigger, pp. 787-791. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. Leavitt, Robert M., & David A. Francis, eds. 1990. Wapapi akonutomakonol/the Wampum Records: Wabanaki traditional laws. Fredericton, New Brunswick: Micmac- Maliseet Institute, University of New Brunswick. Speck, Frank G. 1997. Penobscot man: The life history of a forest tribe in Maine. Orono: University of Maine Press, [originally published in 1940]
Cover: Colonial government broadside in Ojibwe, 1866. (AO, F4337-10-0-6) ISSN 0031-5671 Printed in Canada