EUROPEAN HISTORY 2. The Reformation Form 3
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Unit 2.1 - The Catholic Church in the Late Middle Ages 1. John Wycliffe 2. John Huss 5. The Pope with Cardinals and Kings in about 1360. 3. Savanarola 4. Martin Luther 1. What was the state of the Catholic Church in the Late Middle Ages? For several centuries devout Christians attacked the Catholic Church for a number of reasons: simony: the sale of important Church offices (e.g. bishoprics and abbeys) pluralism: the practice by which one clergyman held several Church offices, nepotism: then Church offices were given to relatives of princes, bishops and popes, most of the clergy were ignorant and arrogant with the people. there was the widespread sale of false relics of saints. in monasteries monks and nuns lived in luxury and pleasure. Popes, cardinals and bishops lived in magnificent palaces like kings and princes. The Babylonian Captivity of the Popes in Avignon (France) (1305-1377) had made the Popes prisoner s of the wishes of the King of France. the Great Schism (1378-1417) was a time when there three Popes instead of one (in Rome, Avignon and Pisa). the Renaissance Popes of the 15 th century became involved in costly wars in Italy with the other Italian princes. the people hated the constant demand by the clergy to collect money (known as tithes). Pope Julius II (1503-13) started selling indulgencies (certificates of pardon) because he needed extra money to build St Peter s Basilica in Rome (the Vatican). 2. How did the revolt against the Catholic Church come about? Since the early 12th century these abuses had brought cries for reform in every generation. Two such early reformers were John Wycliffe in England, John Huss in Bohemia, the Albigensians in Southern France and Girolamo Savanarola in Florence. Yet all these earlier attempts at reform failed. But the movement started by Martin Luther in 1517 in Germany was a great success. In Luther s time many German Catholics were already prepared to revolt against the Church. The printing press was invented in Germany in about 1440. Thousands of religious books were printed and sold in Germany. The humanists tried to restore the Church to its original purity. Some Christians set up spiritual groups and lived a spiritual life cut off from the Catholic Church (e.g. Lollards in England, Hussites in Bohemia, the Christian Brethren in Flanders). These pious Christians were ready to accept Luther s ideas. The Renaissance Popes wanted to strengthen their power in Italy. Pope Julius II (1503-13) fought many wars in Italy and ruled the Papal States as a Renaissance prince. The Popes made Rome a centre for arts and learning. Julius II started building the Vatican and made Michelangelo paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. 2
Unit 2.1 - The Catholic Church in the Later Middle Ages 1. Colour the states in the map that gave their support to: (a) the Roman Popes (yellow) (b) the Avignon Popes (red) (c) both at different times (purple) (3) 2. Name the religious movement associated with these medieval religious reformers: (a) Wycliffe: (b) Huss: (c) Savanarola: 3. For each above reformer, give the country or province in Europe where they spread their teachings. (a) (b) (3) (c) (3) 5. What common criticism did these reformers have against the Catholic Church? (1) 4. How did critics of the Church usually end up in the Middle Ages? (1) 6. Identify three major abuses of the Catholic Church in the Later Middle Ages. (3) 7. The time when the Popes were force to live in France was called as (1) 8. The time when there were three Popes at the same time was called as (1) 9. Identify one tragic consequence of the Great Schism on the Catholic Church? (1) 8. Why did Pope Julius II order the sale of indulgences? (1) 9 Mention one good and one bad contribution of the Renaissance Popes to the Catholic Church? 3 (Total 20 marks)
Unit 2.2 - Martin Luther and the German Reformation. 1. A Lutheran Protestant caricature 2. Luther burning the Pope Leo s Bull of Excommunication. 1. Why did Martin Luther disagree with the teachings of the Catholic Church? Luther came from a family of peasants, entered the Augustinian Order and studied theology at the University of Wittenberg. In 1514 he went to Rome to study theology. There he was shocked by the abuses which he saw around him. Back in Wittenberg he started attacking the teaching of the Catholic Church which stated that man cannot go to Heaven without faith and good works. Luther said that man can be saved by faith alone and belief in God s mercy (justification by faith). All man needs was the Bible to give him God s word and live according to God s will. Luther s ideas brought about a religious revolution against the established teachings of the Catholic Church. 2. Why did Luther revolt openly against the Church? In 1517 Pope Leo X sent the Dominican friar Johann Tetzel to Wittenberg to sell indulgences for the building of St Peter s Basilica in Rome. The Church held the belief that the Pope had the power to grant indulgences to the faithful as penance for their earthly sins. A person receiving the indulgence would be spared a number of days in Purgatory. Luther was scandalized by the sale of indulgences. He thus decided to act. He nailed on the church door at Wittenberg 95 objections to the teachings of the Catholic Church. 3. What were the consequences of Luther s protest? Copies of Luther s protest were printed in Latin and German. Soon afterwards the sale of indulgences in Germany went down. Tetzel pressed the Pope to discipline Luther. At first the Pope ignored Luther until in 1520 he could delay no more. Pope Leo issued a bull (letter) that gave Luther 60 days to recant (beg forgiveness for his errors). But Luther burned the papal bull publicly and continued to attack the Church. He stated that the priesthood was open to all believers, that every Christian had the right to read the Bible in his own language and that the Bible, not the Church, was the final authority on doctrine. Luther argued that governments had the right to reform the Church by setting up national churches without being subjected to the authority of the Pope. In 1521 the Pope excommunicated (expelled) Luther as a heretic. But Luther defended his teachings in front of Emperor Charles V at the Imperial Diet at Worms. The Diet ordered his arrest but the Duke of Saxony hid him in one of his castles. Luther spent the rest of his life translating the New Testament into German and organizing the Lutheran Church. He abolished the Latin Mass. In its place he made a service in German, consisting of preaching, Bible reading and hymn singing. He wrote a catechism for the Lutheran Church. Catholic churches and monasteries were taken over by the German Lutheran princes. These princes appointed Lutheran preachers that replaced the Catholic clergy. Luther ended clerical celibacy when he himself married a former nun. Luther s revolt against the Catholic Church triggered the forces that destroyed the unity of Western Christendom, caused bitter religious hatred, wars, massacres and suffering for almost two centuries. By the time Luther died in 1546, most of Northern Germany and the Scandinavian countries (Denmark, Sweden and Norway) became Lutheran. 4
Unit 2.2 - Martin Luther and the German Reformation 1. (a) Describe the event that is taking place in the source shown on the right. (1) (a) Mention one immediate consequence of this event. (1) 2. Explain the following terms: (a) justification by faith: (1) (b) indulgences: (1) (c) Papal bull: (1) (d) excommunicated: (1) (e) heretic: (1) (f) clerical celibacy: (1) 3. Put these four important landmarks in the life of Martin Luther in chronological order: (4) A B C D Luther sticks his 95 thesis with the Cathedral door at Wittenberg. Pope Leo declares Luther a heretic and excommunicates him. Luther visits Rome and becomes shocked with what he sees there. Luther is called to defend his views at the Diet of Worms. 4. What part did the following persons play in the early phase of the Protestant Revolt? (a) Pope Leo X. (1) (b) Emperor Charles V. (1) (b) Frederick Elector of Saxony: (1) 5. Mention two consequences of Luther s revolt against the Church. (a) (1) (b) (1) 6. Underline the European countries that became broke away with Rome and became Lutheran. (France, the Netherlands, Northern Germany, England, Sweden, Austria, Denmark, Norway) (2) 5 (Total marks = 2
Unit 2.3 - The English Reformation 1. Henry VIII 2. Thomas More 3. Dissolution of monasteries 4. Elizabeth I 1. Why did Henry VIII break away from the Catholic Church of Rome? The Reformation in England started with a quarrel between King Henry VIII and Pope Clement VII over the annulment of his marriage. In 1521 King Henry had wrote a refutation of Luther in Latin and Pope Leo X gave him the title Defender of the Faith. After 18 years of marriage Henry had a daughter Mary. Henry wanted a son to succeed him as king. Thus, in 1527 he wrote to Pope Clement to annul his marriage with Queen Catherine of Aragon (an aunt of Emperor Charles V). In 1529 Henry called Parliament to make the English Church independent from Rome. He appointed a Protestant Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. Cranmer annulled Henry s marriage and gave him permission to marry Anne Boleyn. In 1534 Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy which made the king the head of the English Church. Most Englishmen accepted the break from Rome without protest. Those few who remained Catholic, such as Sir Thomas More (humanist scholar and Chief Minister), were accused of treason and executed. In 1536 Parliament passed the Act of Dissolution to confiscate the property of England s 800 monasteries and nunneries, on the argument that monks and nuns led sinful and useless lives. Henry simply wanted their property and their money to pay off debts caused by his expensive wars. The confiscated Church lands were sold to the nobles and the rich landowners. These landowners became stout defenders of the Protestant Reformation in England. They feared that if England became Catholic again, they would have to give back to the Church lands which they had bought. The Act of the Six Articles kept Catholic doctrine and practice unchanged, such as the sacraments, the Mass, confession and clerical celibacy. It decreed the death penalty for those who did not abide by these articles. 2. Religious uncertainty following Henry death. The English reformers tried to make the Church of England more Protestant when Henry VIII died in 1547 and was succeeded by his 10-year old son Edward VI (1547-1553). Protestants dominated the Council that ruled in Edward s name. They repealed the Six Articles, made English the language of the liturgy instead of Latin, issued the Book of Common Prayer, abolished Catholic ceremonies and the Catholic catechism and gave permission for priests to marry. When Edward died his half-sister Mary (1553-1558) became queen. Mary s ambition was to return England to Catholicism. She forced Parliament to repeal all the religious changes made by her father and by her brother. Mary ordered the execution of hundreds of leading Protestants who refused to convert to the Catholic faith. This gained her the name of Bloody Mary and made the English see Catholicism as a cruel and oppressive faith. 3. The Anglican Church established When Mary died in 1558 most Englishmen had turned against Catholicism. They welcomed her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth I as their queen. England once again broke away with Rome. In 1563 Parliament passed the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Anglican Church. The articles rejected the Pope s authority, allowed the clergy to marry and used the English language in the liturgy. But the Articles rejected the doctrines of Lutheran justification by faith, the Calvinist predestination and the Catholic Sacraments. To avoid a religious war, Elizabeth and her advisers set up the Anglican Church as a half-way reform between Catholicism and Protestantism. Elizabeth s religious policy was so successful that the Catholic Counter- Reformation failed to bring back England to the Catholic fold again. 6
Unit 2.3 - The English Reformation 1. Write TRUE or FALSE to these statements. (5) (a) (b) (c) (d) Henry VIII defended Luther against the Pope. The Pope refused to annul Henry s marriage with Catherine of Aragon. King Henry took over the property of the English monasteries. Queen Elizabeth I established the Anglican Church of England. 2. Explain the importance of these terms in relation to the English Reformation: (a) Defender of the Fait (1521): (b) The Act of Supremacy (1532): (c) The Act of Dissolution (1536): (d) The Act of the Six Articles (1549): (e) The Thirty Nine Articles (1559): 3. How did Protestantism gain a stronger hold in England under the reign of Edward VI? 4. Why was Queen Mary I nicknamed as Bloody Mary? 5. Why can one conclude that Queen Elizabeth s religious policy proved to be very successful? (Total: 20 marks) 7
Unit 2.4 - The Reformation in Switzerland and the Rise of Calvinism 1. Ulrich Zwingli 2. John Calvin 3. John Calvin preaching 4. Calvin at the Geneva Reformation Memorial in Geneva 1. Ulrich Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation In 1519 an independent Protestant movement arose in Zurich, Switzerland. Its leader, Ulrich Zwingli, was a humanist priest who agreed with most of Luther s ideas. In 1529 Zwingli and Luther met but failed to join in one Protestant faith. Zwingli s reformation was limited to Switzerland where that country was divided between Catholics and Protestants. Civil war broke out in Switzerland and Zwingli was killed in battle in 1531. But the reform movement started with Zwingli in Switzerland continued after his death. 2. How did John Calvin establish the Calvinist Church in Geneva? John Calvin at first studied for the priesthood but then turned from theology to law. In 1533 he converted to Protestantism. In 1536 he published his great work, Institutes of Christian Religion. Calvin s ideas drew heavily from Luther, St Augustine and the Bible. In 1536 as a young French reformer, Calvin was invited to organize the reformed church in Geneva, in Switzerland, which had been left without a strong leader since the death of Zwingli. 3. The doctrine of Calvinism Calvin came up with the doctrine of predestination as the basis of Calvinism. Calvin insisted that man is saved by faith alone and that God alone decided who would receive eternal life. Calvin called these fortunate people the elect. Calvinists believed that a strict moral and religious life was a sign of election while an immoral life was a sign that one is not among the chosen. Calvin held that the Bible was the supreme authority in every aspect of life. While Luther subordinated the Lutheran Church to the state, Calvin made the Calvinist Church supreme over the state. When Calvin went to Geneva he applied his ideas to the government of the city and set up a theocracy (a religious dictatorship). The government was in the hands of twelve Calvinist ministers called Elders. These Elders made and enforced the laws and manners in speech and dress. Calvin ruled Geneva as a religious dictator. He enforced his stern moral code with the help of informers and spies, torture, exile and execution of Catholics and other Protestants. 4. How did Calvinism spread outside Geneva? From Geneva Calvinist missionaries spread their new faith to Germany, France, the Low Countries and Scotland. In France, Calvin s followers became known as Huguenots. Between 1562 and1598 there was a civil war in France between Catholics and Huguenots. Both aimed to control the government. Calvinism entered Scotland when John Knox returned to Scotland from Geneva. In 1560 Knox persuaded the Scottish Parliament to break away with Rome and set up the Scottish national church based on the teachings of Calvin. The Calvinist Church of Scotland became known as Presbyterian. The English Calvinists were known as Puritans because of their strict moral and pious life. The English Puritans found life unattractive in England so in 1620 some 400 of them crossed the Atlantic in the Mayflower and settled in New England. They set up Calvinist communities governed like Geneva. They were the first European settlers in North America. Their descendants were the found of the United States of America in the 18 th century 8
Unit 2.4 - The Reformation in Switzerland and the Rise of Calvinism A. Map of Switzerland B. Calvinist Bible c. 1560. 1. Name the two Swiss reformers. (2) 2. Which was the centre of the Swiss Reformation in the 1520s? (1) 3. Why was Zwingli not as successful as Luther and Calvin as a reformer? (1) 4. Name Calvin s greatest literary work. (1) 5. Why did he end up in Geneva? (1) 6. Explain Calvin s the doctrine of predestination. (3) 7. Who were the Elders in Geneva? 8. What kind of government did Calvin set up at Geneva? 9. Mention two countries were Calvinism spread outside Geneva. (2) 10. How were Calvinists in these countries called? (a) France: (b) Scotland: (b) England: (3) 11. How did Calvinism enter North America? (Total marks = 20) 9
Unit 2.5 - The Catholic Counter-Reformation 1. Pope Paul III 2. The Council of Trent 3. The Catholic Mass in the 16 th century 1. How did the Catholic Church try to stop the advance of Protestantism? At first Catholic leaders tried to stop the Protestants by the use of force. But this way did not prove successful because many people were leaving the Catholic Church to become Protestant. Some Catholic leaders realized that the only way to stop Protestantism was to remove the abuses within the Catholic Church. This reform movement of the Catholic Church became known as the Counter-Reformation. The agents of the Counter-Reformation were the following: The Counter-Reformation Popes date from the election of Paul III in 1534 to the death of Sistus V in 1590. These Popes were more pious men than the worldly Renaissance Popes. These thus gave more attention to reform within the Catholic Church. St Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) was the founder of the Society of Jesus (or Jesuit Order). The Jesuits served the Church and the Papacy with untiring devotion and obedience. The Jesuit Order was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540. Jesuit priests went to Protestant lands to win converts back to Catholicism. They founded Catholic schools to train the young in religion and in secular subjects. Jesuit missionaries as St Francis Xavier, preached the Catholic faith in America and Asia. By 1600 they succeeded to stop the spread of Protestantism in Germany, Austria, France, Poland and Hungary. They tried to win over England to the Catholic faith the time of Queen Elizabeth I, but failed. The Roman Inquisition (1542). The Roman Inquisition was set up by Pope Paul III to replace the Medieval Inquisition. Its purpose was to hunt down Protestants and heretics and to convince them to recant and ask for forgiveness. If not, they were tortured, condemned as heretics and burnt at the stake. One example of the power of the Inquisition over Catholics was the burning of the priest-scientist Giordano Bruno in Rome in 1600 and the trial of the scientist-astronomer Galileo Galilei in Florence in 1630. The Council of Trent (1545-1563). Long before Luther started his attack, many Christians had been calling for a General Council to reform the Church. Pope Paul III finally called a council to meet in Trent between 1545 and 1563. The Council was dominated by the Pope and his supporters. The Council rejected all compromise with Protestants. It affirmed Catholic dogma (teaching) about the Sacraments, salvation by faith and good works, papal authority, the veneration of saints and relics, pilgrimages and the papal indulgences. The Council published the Index of Books that Catholics were prohibited to read. It ordered bishops to stay in their diocese, to discipline their clergy and to set up a seminary for the training of priests. The decrees of the Council were left to be enforced by the Popes. By the 1560s, the Catholic Church turned on the offensive against Protestantism. It stopped the further expansion of Protestantism and won back lands that had seemed lost a few years before. 10
Unit 2.5 - The Catholic Counter-Reformation Source A Source B 1. Describe briefly sources A and B in relation to the Catholic Counter-Reformation. A. The torturing of by the Roman (1) B. The martyrdom of missionary priests in Elizabethan England in the 1570s. (2) 2. Why did the Catholic Church start the Counter-Reformation? (1) 3. What contribution did the following give to the Counter-Reformation movement? (a) Ignatius Loyola. (1) (b) Pope Paul III (1) 4. What service did the new religious order of Jesuits give to the Catholic Church? 5. Why was the Council of Trent summoned? (1) 6. Identify four conclusions about Catholic dogma that were reached at the Council of Trent. (4) 7. Why did the Pope set up the Roman Inquisition in 1542? (1) 8. What effect did the Roman Inquisition have upon the life of Catholics living at that time? (1) 9. Why did the Catholic Church started publishing an Index of Prohibited Books in 1559? (1) 10. Do you think Giordano Bruno and Galileo Galilei were condemned unjustly by the Inquisition? State a reason for your answer. 11. In which parts of Europe was the Roman Inquisition successful in its main objective? 11 (Total marks = 20)
Unit 2.6 - The Reformation Read carefully the following essay titles and answer any ONE in about 200 to 300 words. Essay carry 20 marks each On the Protestant Reformation PAPER 2A 1. Explain why the Reformation occurred in Luther s time and not earlier. (SEC 2000) 2. Account for the effectiveness of Martin Luther s protest against the Catholic Church and explain why his ideas managed to spread in and outside Germany. 3. The Catholic Church was assaulted by other Protestant forces besides Lutheranism. Discuss the march of (a) Calvinism and (ii) Anglicanism in 16 th century Europe. (SEC1995) 4. What do we mean by the term Counter-Reformation? Write about methods used by the Catholic Church in its attempts to defend itself during the Reformation crisis. (Annual Paper 2007) On the Protestant Reformation PAPER 2B 1. Martin Luther was one of those who attacked the Roman Catholic Church. (a) Who was Martin Luther? (b) Why did he attack the Church? (c) What were the results of this attack? (SEC 1996) (Marks: 6, 6, 8) 2. The Reformation can be discussed under such headings as Lutheranism, Calvinism and Anglicanism. (a) Give and explain two reasons why the Protestant Reformation occurred; (b) Trace briefly how one of the above religious movements progressed; (c) State and explain two lasting results of the Reformation. (SEC 1998) (Marks: 6, 8, 6) 3. Write briefly about five of the following: (a) the Ninety-Five thesis (b) the Peace of Augsburg (1555) (c) John Calvin (d) Henry VIII of England (e) Ignatius Loyola (e) the Peace of Westphalia (1648) (f) the Edict of Nantes (1598) (SEC 1997) (Marks: 5 x 4 = 20) 4. To combat the Protestant Reformation the Catholic Church conducted a reform programme of its own generally known as the Counter-Reformation. Write about it under the following three headings: (a) the Council of Trent (b) the Jesuits (c) the Inquisition (SEC 1997) (Marks: 6, 6, 8) 12