The History of the Roman Empire Exam II Review

The History of the Roman Empire Exam II Review After Nero s death, 4 emperors come to the throne (69 A.D.) o Year of the Four Emperors Galba Governor of Spain 70 years old Establishes himself as emperor Tries to restore fiscal sanity Refuse to pay a donative to the Praetorian Guard Cuts back on grain donations Other military commanders oppose him Otho Military commander of Portugal, expected to be Galba s successor Feels abused when Galba chooses a senator Pays Praetorian Guard to oust Galba Otho declared emperor Has some support, opposed by Vitellius, a military commander Vitellius defeats Otho s legions, Otho commits suicide (April 69 A.D.) Aulus Vitellius Raids the treasury Can t pay his soldiers, has them loot neighboring Italian cities Vespasian Commander in the East Put down the first Jewish revolt Soldiers feel he should become emperor Leaves Titus, his son, in charge Blockades Egyptian grain barges into Rome Vitellius tries to abdicate, his soldiers won t let him Vespasian wins out, recognized as emperor (October) o Rules for 10 years (69 79 A.D.) o First of the Flavians Prospect of a military strongman is returned Now armies in the provinces dictate authority Shifting away from civic control Emperors no longer need to be from the senate aristocracy Emperors can come form the provinces Seeing the erosion of the power of the senate Flavians o Vespasian 69 79 o Titus 79 81 o Domitian 81 96 Emperors are more militaristic, coming from the Equestrian class Vespasian o An old soldier o Spends a lot of time reforming the military o Spends times pacifying the Roman provinces o Institutes a series of fiscal reforms o Dealt with revolts within the Germanic tribes Revolts are not widespread

Tribes are becoming Romanized, especially along the border o Vespasian worries about the power of legions within specific provinces Legion assignments are permanent Troops become very loyal to commanders, not necessarily the emperor o Vespasian breaks the legions up Spreads them around Re-assigns squads to different provinces Recruitment strategies chance Swaps legion commanders around o Keeping legions in place has advantages Legionnaires can settle down, have families Fight harder to defend their homes o There are disadvantages Less feeling of loyalty to the empire as a whole Mobility is sacrificed Develop loyalties to a particular commander o Financial Reforms Limited public expenditures Increased taxation and tax collecting Limited military spending Confiscated estates o Does engage in expenditures Roads Forts The Forum repaired/expanded The Flavian Amphitheatre (Coliseum) o 1 st Jewish Revolt Jewish rebels defeated in Judea (70 A.D.) Judea is formally annexed as a Roman province Temple in Jerusalem is destroyed Last rebels hold out at Masada for 3 years All of the defenders commit suicide just as the Romans are reaching the stronghold Pharisees Reformers Emphasize education, reading the Torah Stretch the importance of studying scripture as well as sacrificing at the temple Pharisees take control after the destruction of the temple o Vespasian dies 10 years into his reign from a fever Titus o Assumes the role of emperor o Widely popular o Restores senatorial judicial powers, stops treason trials, stops secret messengers o A womanizer o Sponsors games, festivals o Titus dies after only 2 years of rule (some kind of illness) o Another note: Vesuvius erupts, destroys Pompeii, Herculaneum Domitian o Spends lavishly o Addicted to gladiatorial conquests o Sponsors games o Squanders the treasury o A religious conservative

Tried to restore faith in Olympian gods Believed he was a god as well Was to be addressed lord and god Starts the practice of worshipping the emperor as a sign of loyalty to the state Hard on the Christians, the Jews o Domitian becomes increasingly paranoid Senators, Praetorian Guard, even his own wife is drawn suspect Fearing death, his wife, Praetorian Prefect, senators conspire to kill him A slave Stephanus kills Domitian in the year 96 A.D. o Domitian is condemned by the senate, his statuses are torn down Flavians have introduced new and interesting dynamics There is a revival of control of the senate s choice for emperor 96 180 A.D.: The Good Emperors Domitian s assassination allows senate to choose a new emperor Senate selects the childless, elderly Nerva as emperor Kicks off the period known as The Era of the Good Emperors Senate sets up a new method of succession The choice of Nerva is an interesting one o Senate trying not to re-introduce dynastic rule Nerva s Rule (96 98 A.D.) o Secures the loyalty of the legions by paying them a donative o Selects Trajan as his successor o Rules for two years Wants to repair relations with the senate Vows to never execute a senator Suspends the harsh treason law Regularizes and stabilizes relations with the senate Trajan (98 117 A.D.) o Provincial army commander Served in Spain, Germany, the East First emperor born in the provinces o His ascension to the throne is so calm, so unopposed, that the spends two years touring the provinces following Nerva s death o His selection by Nerva starts a practice of an emperor selecting a capable heir, rather than dynastic approaches Called adoptive succession Proves to be a very successful strategy o Trajan has no children o Rules from 98 117 A.D. o Revered as one of the best Roman emperors Later referred to as Optimus Princeps o Trajan was magnanimous, supported by the army, the senate, and the people o Has extensive provincial knowledge; expands provincial integration o An effective administrator Expanded public assistance programs Romans from the countryside flood into Rome to seek their fortunes Provides for needy children o Had an assertive foreign policy Required to deal with border uprisings Added the province of Dacia (101 106 A.D.) Pacified native uprisings Embarks on a colonization program So many Romans flood there that it is known as modern-day Romania

So much gold is available in Dacia that it depresses the value of Roman currency Parthian Emprie Trajan briefly seizes Mesopotamia The Roman Empire is at its height during the rule of Trajan o Trajan Dies (probably of a stroke) in 117 A.D. o Trajan selected Hadrian as his successor Hadrian (117 138 A.D.) o Former governor of Syria o Quickly recognized as the next emperor A smooth succession o An intellectual with refined tastes o Aficionado of Greek culture o First emperor to wear a beard o Married to a grand-neice of Trajan s; had many lovers o Most famous lover: Antinous Followed him on campaign; died in Egypt o Hadrian feels Rome has expanded beyond its ability to defend itself o Foreign Policy Abandons Mesopotamia Pulls back the borders in some of the provinces Tours Gaul, Germany, Britain Orders the construction of Hadrian s Wall to protect from raids from northern tribes in Scotland Engages the Parthians; Roman might allows for a treaty to be signed Judea Tries to build a temple over the site of the original temple Leads to the Second Jewish Revolt (132 135 A.D.) o Revolt led by Simon Barkokhba o Jewish defeat leads to guerilla warfare Last vestiges of a Jewish state are suppressed o Civic Improvements Improves postal service o Military Benefits Increases benefits to soldiers Much loved by his troops Marches with them, eats with them Some feel he is weak in surrendering territories o Senators dislike his reclusiveness, his attachment to Greek culture o Regularizes the bureaucracy Regularizes law code Establishes a cabinet of advisors Expands Trajan s assistance program to the needy o Retreats to a Villa in his later years o Dies from a disease that wastes his body away o Succeeded by Antoninus Pius Antoninus Pius (138 161 A.D.) o Comes from an administrative background (legal) o Distinguished administrator; very learned o Reluctantly accepts the heirship to the throne o Extremely religious o Antonius reign represents the height of the Pax Romana No calamitous events

Very peaceful, very prosperous o Very loyal to Hadrian Foils the senate s attempt to attack the memory of Hadrian o Continues the administrative reforms started by his predecessors o Very frugal; lives a simple life o Builds roads, baths o Expands public assistance programs for the urban poor o Leaves a massive treasury surplus o Institues legal reforms Regularizes the process of freeing slaves Passes laws to secure heirship Restricts persecution of Christians, Jews <Side Note> Christian persecution was local, isolated, small, moderate There is no empire-wide persecutions until 250 A.D. (Decius) Weren t constantly persecuted </Side Note> <Side Note>Christians have now distinguished themselves as a separate sect Introduces the notion of innocent until proven guilty </Side Note> o Foreign affairs No major military engagements Builds a wall in Britain Military got a little dull after so little activity o Antoninus dies in 161 A.D. o Marcus Aurelius succeeds Antoninus Marcus Aurelius (161 180 A.D.) o A scholar o Devotee of stoicism Preaches a simple life, moderation Emphasizes peace o Writes his collection of musing and writings called The Meditations An expose into stoicism o Parthians try to extend their boundaries, engage Rome War lasts from 161 165 A.D. Marcus Aurelius stops Parthian expansion, but at a price Legions bring back the Plague o Plague Spreads through Egypt, Gaul, Germany Germanic tribes seize the weakened state of Rome s legions, attack Overrun the Balkans, threaten northern Italy Marcus Aurelius fights, puts down each revolt War lasts from 167 175 A.D. o Coup attempt (175 A.D.) Avidius Cassius hears Marcus Aurelius has died, tries to seize throne His own soldiers, to save their skin, kill him (Avidius Cassius) themselves o Marcus Aurelius returns to a policy of dynastic succession o Dies in campaign against the Germans in 180 A.D. Hadrian s Wall o British are conquered in 43 A.D. by Claudius o By 121 A.D., Roman s and Scots have fought to a stand-off o Work on Hadrian s Wall began in 122 A.D. o Hadrian considered himself an architect; probably designed the wall o The army was responsible for building the wall Had engineers, surveyors, and architects Saved on manpower, supplies, money o Hadrian wanted to keep the soldiers busy

Discipline Prevent dissidents, uprisings, and simple lethargy o 3 legions were assigned to build the wall; also used some slave labor o Work was all manual labor Grueling work o Two years in, Hadrian alters his plans Orders 16 large forts to be added to the wall Soldiers were ordered to build a deep ditch (velum) on their side for additional protection o Wall was probably finished in 8 10 years Could house up to 20,000 troops o Soldiers at the wall had some traditional Roman comforts o Barracks were cramped, harsh o Commanders lived in relative luxury o Civilian towns sprang up n ear each of the forts o Hadrian died in 138 A.D.; Antoninus takes command Antoninus orders the army to move north; abandons Hadrian s Wall Builds another wall, Antonine s Wall, farther north Antonine s Wall fails about 15 years later; return to Hadrian s Wall 180 285: Barracks Emperors or The Crisis of the Third Century o Begins a gradual trend towards a military dictatorship o Divided in half in the year 235 o First half: defined by the rule of Commodus Marcus Aurelius son o Second half: rule by the Severans First part: relatively stable Issues of borders and barbarians are held in check Requires a brutal, dictatorial rule o Second half Frequent civil wars 26 emperors over the span of 50 years 1 dies a natural death Frequent assassinations, deaths on the battlefield Constant attacks by barbarians Near breakup of the empire Breakaway sections and provinces E.g. Gaul Rulers want to care for individual provinces Economic collapse Trade is disrupted Agriculture is disrupted Commerce slows to a crawl Problems last until 285 A.D., when Diocletian assumes power o Major Issues Defense Empire has become over-extended Border defense needs are outstripping the capabilities of the empire Issues and strategies of defense Economics Rome controls a large amount of territory Rome is faced with a negative balance of trade o As you control territories, you gain access to those resources o Control so much that gold and commerce isn t flowing into the empire

Rome debases the value of its coinage, leads to inflation Rome turns to oppressive taxation Centralization Emperors feel that they need to take direct control of affairs Increases bureaucracy, reduces local creativity Militarization Emperor becomes dependent upon the loyalty of his army Army has a greater say in who becomes emperor Army controls the power in the empire As a result, the power of the senate weakens Senate s authority wanes until it is little more than a city council by the fall of the empire Provinces Provinces become more important, especially in matters of defense Emperors of The Crisis of the Third Century o Commodus 180 192 o Didius Julianus 192 193 o Septimus Severus 193 211 o Caracella & Geta 211 217 o Macrinus 217 218 o Elagabalus 218 222 o Severus Alexander 222 235 26 Emperors in 50 Years o Maximinus Thrax 235 238 A.D. o Gourdian I & II 238 o Pupienus & Balbinus 238 o Gourdian III 238 244 o Philip the Arab 244 249 o Decius 249 251 o Gallus 251 253 o Aemiliamus 253 o Valerian 253 260 o Gallienus 253 268 o Claudius Gothicus 268 270 (died of natural causes) o Quintillius 270 o Aurelian 270 275 o Tacitus 275 276 o Florian 276 o Prohus 276 282 o Cavus 282 283 o Carinus 283 285 o Numeriamus 283 284 Commodus / The Severans (180 285) o Not well liked o Senate hatches a plan to kill him; fails o 192: Praetorian Prefect bribes Commodus sparring partner to kill him o Commodus has no heirs; a struggle for succession ensues Pertinax, an aged senator, is chosen by the Prefect, senators o Tried to regain control of the treasury o Reduced taxes, cut spending o Announced plans for military expansion

o Sold imperial offices to the highest bidder Loses face with the senate Citizens hated the approach, pelted him in public o Did not increase pay for legionnaires o Assassinated after only three months Three senators come forward; Praetorian Guard auctions off role of emperor o Didius Julianus wins out, pays 25,000 sesterce per guard However, several legionary commanders seek the throne as well o Pescanius Niger Syria o Cloudius Albinus Britain o Septimus Severus Along the Danube Severus arrives, seizes power (193 A.D.) o Executes Julianus Septimus Severus o Tries to restore fiscal responsibility o Increases pay for his soldiers o Disbands the Praetorian Guard, his army takes charge o Further shifts power from Italy to the provinces o Promises to make Albinus heir if he allies with Severus against Niger Niger is ultimately defeated at Issus o Severus, while in the east, campaigns against the Parthians o While this is happening, Albinus ponders his fate, decides to revolt Supported by Western legions Begin to see distinctions between the western empire and the eastern empire o Severus defeats Albinus in 197 A.D. Allows his supporters, army to take ruthless action against Albinus supporters o Severus resumes his campaign against the Parthians Very successful, winning battles between 197 199 Briefly retakes Mesopotamia o Parthian Empire falls apart internally; allows the Sassanids to assume control Sassanids are energetic, vigorous Will pose a problem for the Roman Empire o Reforms Major and sweeping Relies heavily on Equestrians to run the empire Further weakens senatorial power Weakens senate by expanding Roman Senate to include more provinces Strips senate of its judicial responsibility, transfers to the military Forms the Imperial Council; now the key advisory body of the emperor Tremendously increases the power of the Praetorian Prefect Becomes something like a Prime Minister Commanded Italian Armies Administrative affairs City commissioner Presides over meetings of the Imperial Council when the emperor is away Financial Reforms Seized, sold-off estates of enemies Devalues denarius, doubles the pay of the army Legal Reforms Codifies class distinction Forms Honestiores o Senators, equestrians, provincial officials, soldiers

Forms Humiliares o Mass of the populace; the impoverished poor Law affects each group differently Tries to erode distinction between Italy and the provinces Builds roads, schools, public buildings all over the empire Divides up large provinces into smaller units Easier to manage Maintain control Military Reforms Creates social clubs Allows marriages to native women Regularizes promotions Opens up officer positions to Equestrians Dealt with the issue of pensions Wanted to make life in the military more desirable <Side Note>Imperial Defense o Question: Do we permanently station legions in a province or rotate them? o Issue Permanent Assignment Advantages o Allows soldiers to settle down o Integrate into the province o Soldier will fight for their province more vigorously Disadvantages o Lower commitment to the empire as a whole o Static: can t shift defenses when needed Mobile Defense Advantages o Concentrate your forces for maximum protection o Soldiers can t refocus loyalty Disadvantages o Army life is less attractive o Hard to recruit </Side Note> o Severus is primarily responsible for turning Rome into a military dictatorship Army deals with policy Army chooses the emperor o Severus isolates the role of the emperor Contact is with the army only o The policy of aloofness leads to greater belief of the divinity of the emperor Receives the title dominus (lord) o Severus dies in 211 A.D. while campaigning in Britain o Succeeded by his sons Caracella & Geta Caracella & Geta o Severan women gain power o Julia Domna mother of Caracella & Geta o One year in, Caracella murders Geta Caracella o Compared to Caligula Deranged, debauched o Continues to reduce senatorial powers o A capable commander Campaigns in Germany with great success

A soldiers emperor Even dug ditches with them o 212 A.D.: Antonine Constitution Extends Roman citizenship to all free citizens of the empire A far reaching, progressive proposal Probably done so that he could tax more people o Murdered while on campaign in 217 A.D. (Parthians) o Macrinus, army commander, becomes emperor o Julia Maesa, Septimus sister-in-law, plots to overthrow Macrinus Garners support, civil war ensues Julia wins, installs her grandson Elagabalus as emperor Elagabalus o Enamered with the god Elagabaal Is a priest with the cult of Elagabaal Supposedly in a black meteorite, brings it to Rome o Elagabalus wears silken robes, perfume, pearls Rubs senators the wrong way o Tries to make Elagabaal the chief deity in Rome o Julia Maesa has him bumped in 222 A.D. o Installs Severus Alexander as emperor in 222 A.D. Severus Alexander o Power resides with Julia Maesa, Julia Mammea o Senatorial powers are partially restored o Appoint Domitius Vlpianus as Praetorian Prefect o Taxes are reduced, collections are regularized o Supports public education, building of schools o Manages, effectively controls food supplies o Loans for farmers o Difficulties Doesn t secure loyalty of the army Revolts break out Mutines Revolts against the emperor Parthians (Sassanid s) attack, seize Mesopotamia Severus Alexander forced to campaign, goes badly Many troops are lost Can t manage generals Germans revolt Severus Alexander bribes them Army dislikes this 235 A.D.: Maximinus Thrax, commander of Pannonia, murders Severus Alexander, his mother Ushers in the height of the crisis of the third century The Severans o Septimus transforms the Empire into a Roman dictatorship Realized army was the true power in the empire Weaken the senate, rely on Equestrians Fundamentally changed the idea of the emperor No longer the first magistrate of the people, now a military dictator Emperors claim that their authority comes from divine sanction Will become worshipped as a god Crisis (235 285) o Civil War, mutinies

o Numerous claims outside the emperor to be the emperor (15) o Numerous provinces are lost Incursions (Parthians) Mutiny o Constant barbarian incursions Goths Germans o Borders constantly under siege o Difficulties No candidate for emperor is able to assert his claim effectively enough to seize political power Severans able to use dynastic claims to solidify their position No one commander can establish imperial unity Senate vies for power with emperor Don t quite realize they are powerless yet Try to undermine the position of the emperor Constant battle and positional wrangling among the legions Constant and incessant barbarian incursions Static defense policy has reduced legion mobility Continuous economic crisis Defense costs are high Outstrips resources Solutions o Devalue coinage o Oppressive regimes Trade declines Plague breaks out, lasts for 20 years Maximinus Thrax o Doubles pay of his soldiers o Introduces brutal & ruthless tax collecting o Faces tax revolts o Revolt occurs in North Africa o Gourdian I & II emerge as emperor, supported by the senate o Maximinus does defeat Gourdian o Senate names Pupienus, Balbinus as emperor Associate with Gourdian III, name him as heir o Maximinus faces these challenges, loses Army mutinies, kills Maximinus o Pupienus & Balbinus are killed by the Praetorian Guard Gourdian III o Faced with an invasion of the Goths, the Parthians o Heads east to deal with it Threw the Persians back Nearly seize the capital o Gourdian III dies before being victorious Probably killed by Philip the Arab (new Prefect) Philip the Arab o Sues for peace with the Persians o Celebrates the 1000 th anniversary of the founding of Rome o Goths press the issue Sends an experienced commander to deal with the Goths So successful that he challenges Philip for the throne Marches on Rome, wins, becomes emperor

Decius o Launches first empire-wide persecution of the Christians (250 A.D.) o Goths regroup, defeat Decius, killing him o Gallus made emperor Gallus o Makes a humiliating treaty with the Goths Keep land, prisoners Agrees to pay an annual tribute o Gallus is assassinated, as is Aemilianus <Side Note>Christian Persecution o Christ is crucified March 18 th or 19 th, year 29 (?) o Paul spreads Christ s message (year 50) o Many Jews didn t know what they were Jews with a slightly different belief Or, something else entirely o Eventually, the Christians crystallize into the second category o New question: Do you need to be Jewish to be a Christian? Early church has a meeting to discuss the issue The question of Christian s identity is decided You don t need to be a Jew to be a Christian o Coupled with the destruction of the Temple in the year 70 A.D., Christianity is propelled into new levels o Jewish Diaspera Mass Jewish migration o Peter, Paul martyred in Rome o Early on, Christians were fairly active They could work, own land, and hold offices Church worship was allowed Bishops could work and help as civil servants o Early on, Christian persecution is localized Could even visit condemned inmates o Christianity grows Christianity s Popularity o Educated Romans gravitate away from the Roman Pantheon of gods o Many upper-class Romans subscribe to the cult of Isis An Egyptian goddess Claim to antiquity A mother goddess She protects and harbors her children Appeals to educated, upper-class o Roman soldiers flock towards Mithra A Persian god A champion of the god of light Appeals to soldiers A bloody god You re baptized (initiation right) with the blood of a bull o Christians Christian God is a crucified criminal Christians ritual involves eating the body and blood of their God Christians are very loyal to one another Their devotion to service and care appeals to many Romans Provide a civil service network A promise of salvation

You can be saved even if you are poor Open to anybody Rich or poor, regardless of social and political standing o By the year 250 A.D., there are so many Christians in the Roman Empire, it becomes possible for Decius to scapegoat the Christians Blames Rome s decentralization and internal strife on this internal state o Vigorousness of the persecution depends on the tenacity of the provincial governors and legionary commanders </Side Note> Valerian & Gallienus o German governor (Valerian) o Garner enough support o Valerian handles eastern defense, Gallienus in the west o Goths and Germans, Persians in the east, pirate o Plague hits Rome At one point 5000 people a day die in Rome o Individual provinces are left to deal with these issues, one breaks away o Valerian is stymied by the Persians, eventually captured, executed o Gallienus has a little better luck Shifts back and forth between barbarians o Posthumus, Gaul s governor, declares himself to be emperor of Gaul o Gallienus is forced to acquiesce to this, the rump empire of Gaul is formed o Massive Gothic invasion into Moeisha Naissus: bloodiest battle of the third century Gallienus kills thousands of Goths Halts Gothic incursions for four years o Gallienus puts down an Italian revolt, only to be killed by one of his own officers Killed by an Illyrian o Gallienus victories has set the stage for a Roman recovery o Defense by depth Positions second and third defensive lines behind the main lines Allows for reserve forces to stop invaders o Gallienus introduces more mobility; abandons (to the extent he can) static defenses o Empowers the cavalry in an attempt to handle defense Master of Horses Will one day supersede the Praetorian Guard o Abandons Christian persecutions Claudius Gothicus o Enrolls some Goths into the Roman army o Gets the credit for defeating the Goths o Dies a natural death, made a god, Quintillius dies (successor) shortly thereafter Aurelian o Shores up Roman defenses o Abandons Dacia o Tries to repair Roman coinage o Has a lot of success o 272 273 Throws back the Persians, re-conquers territory in the east Conquers Palmyra (Zenobia female queen) o Reincorporates Gaul into the empire Ousts the Gaulish emperors o Zenobia, Tetricus are marched behind his chariot in a victory parade (celebration) in Rome o Hailed by the senate as the restorer of the world

o o o Economic Reforms Closes mints Nationalizes breadmaking, food transport Expands food service to the poor Takes a position regarding the emperor as a divine being Associates himself with the cult of a god called Sol Invictus (Unconquerable Sun) Feast is celebrated on the winter solstice Date: December 25 th o Becomes Christmas Day about 40 50 years later A corrupt secretary, fearing discovery, circulates a bogus military hit-list, leading to Aurelian s demise Soldiers are so remorseful, they ask senate to name a new emperor