Philosophical and Religious Foundations of China Exploring Alternative Views of Religion and Culture Jian Li Table of Contents Introduction 2 Chapter 1 An Overview of Religion in China A Personal Experience 4 Chapter 2 Chinese Religion and Philosophy A Historical Perspective 15 Chapter 3 Divinity and Transcendence: Religion and Metaphysics 32 Chapter 4 Human Nature: Good, evil or neutral? 53 Chapter 5 Perspectives of an Ideal Life and Ideal Society 63 Chapter 6 The impact of Daoism on Chinese Medicine 76 Chapter 7 The Impact of Daoism on Chinese Art 83 Chapter 8 How Do You Say Unitarian Universalism in Chinese? 91 Chapter 9 Your Thoughts and Comments 106 Recommended Book and Web Resources 107
Introduction Jian Li Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism are classified as the three major Chinese religions in the West. However, Chinese scholars usually consider them as three great teachings instead of religions. Specifically, Confucianism is often regarded as an ethical system, Buddhism as a religion from India, and Daoism as the indigenous belief system that has both philosophical and religious implications. It is problematic to classify Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism as religions. The word, religion in Chinese, is zong jiao 宗教 : zong 宗 means ancestor, clan, sect, faction, school ; jiao 教 means teach, instruct, and religion by extension. The concept of zong jiao 宗教 as religion was not introduced/used in Chinese until by late 19 th century via Japanese translation of the concept 1. The traditional Chinese folk religion is centered around the ancestor worship. Some households in China, Taiwan, Hong Kong still keep shrines where the pictures and ashes of their diseased parents, grandparents, great grandparents, are kept in reverence regardless of their religious affiliations. They would pay special homage and offerings to their diseased ancestors during special Chinese holidays based on the Chinese lunar calendar. This is the kind of cultural custom/folk religion based on ancestor worship practiced in China for more than 3,000 years. Confucianism and Daoism started to emerge during the Axial Age (about 500 BCE). Buddhism was introduced to China during the Han Dynasty, (206BCE to 220 AD). The introduction of Buddhism from India sparked a sense of urgency in formalizing a state sanctioned ideology/philosophy/religion. As a result, the Three Teachings, Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism started to take shape as state sanctioned belief systems in Han Dynasty. From the start, the Three Teachings were not mutually exclusive but complementary to one another despite some skirmishes about the supremacy of one over another at the different junctures of the Chinese history. In Chinese, the Three Teachings, san jiao he yi 三教合一, literally means the trinity of the Chinese belief system. Confucianism provides 1 Chinese Religion: An Overview, http://www2.kenyon.edu/depts/religion/fac/adler/writings/chinese%20religions%20- %20Overview.htm 2
guidance to ethical behavior, Daoism provides guidance to health and how to live in harmony with the nature and the society, and Buddhism provides a transcendent view of life and death. This booklet is an introduction to the Three Teachings with an emphasis on Daoism. This is because Daoism not only provides a philosophical and religious foundation of the Chinese civilization, it also speaks a universal language that transcends time and space. Philosophical Daoism can still inspire us to live a life that is in harmony with the nature. The first chapter starts from my recent journey to a holy mountain, Kongtong Mountain, in northwest China. It gives the readers a glimpse of religious landscape of China today. After a short introduction of the history of Chinese philosophy and religion, five topics are covered: divinity and transcendence; human nature; perspectives of an ideal life and ideal society; the impact of Daoism on traditional Chinese medicine; the impact of Daoism on Chinese art. The last chapter, How Do You Say Unitarian Universalism in Chinese, was from an article I wrote in 2009. It highlights both the potential and ambiguity inherent in Unitarian Universalism and the difficulty in translation. Apart from the first and last chapters, most of the materials of this booklet come from different sources: books, articles, and online databases. The source of each work is identified in the footnote. In addition, some recommended books/articles are listed at the end of the booklet. There are several different ways of translating Chinese names into English. The two main Romanization systems are Wade-Giles system (developed by British linguists) and Pinyin system (developed by the Chinese linguists in the 1960s). For example, Tao De Ching and Lao Tze are transliterations based on the Wade-Giles system, and Dao De Jing/Lao Zi are transliterations based on the Pinyin system. In academic publications, the Chinese names are mostly translated in the Wade- Giles system before the 1980s, and it is becoming more and more popular to use the Pinyin system after the 1980s. Both Wade-Giles and Pinyin systems are used here to transcribe the proper Chinese names depending largely on the conventions in translating names from Chinese into English. 3
Chapter 1 An Overview of Religion in China -- A Personal Experience Traditionally Chinese religious temples, especially Daoist temples, are nestled in big mountains. This is because Chinese people traditionally believe humans are closer to gods when they are in nature than in man made environment. Most Chinese know about at least a few sacred mountains associated with either Buddhism or Daoism even if they are not religious. There are hundreds of sacred mountains in China. Those who love to travel know about Four Great Sacred Mountains of Buddhism and the Four Great Sacred Mountains of Taoism in China. 2 However, most Chinese who go to those sacred mountains are not for religious reasons but to enjoy the beautiful sceneries, unique architecture and art of the temples dotted in the sacred mountains. In July 2015, I visited Kongtong Mountain (Chinese: 崆峒山 ; pinyin: Kōngtóng Shān). It is an important yet lesser- known sacred mountain in the Northwest China. In addition to numerous Daoist temples, it also has temples dedicated to Confucianism and Buddhism. I chose Mount Kongtong because it was cool in the summer and it was less commercialized than those well known scenic and sacred mountains full of tourists. Here is a short description of Kongtong Mountain 3 : Lying 7.5 miles to the west of Pingliang City in Gansu Province, Kongtong Mountain is noted for its marvelous natural scenery and exquisite manmade landscapes. It enjoys the reputation as "The Holy Land of Taoism", "The Remarkable Spectacle of Western China" and "The First Mountain in Western China". 2. For more details, please read https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sacred_mountains_of_china 3 From Travel China Guide, http://www.travelchinaguide.com/cityguides/gansu/pingliang/kongtongmountain.htm 4
Beautiful Natural Scenery Kongtong Mountain is a branch of Liupan Mountain. Though located in the western plateau area, the mountain is endowed with the characteristics both of the magnificence of China's northern mountains and the beauty of southern mountains. Huge mountains stand one after another with vast patches of green forests as their clothes and ethereal mist as their white belt. This mountain is abundant in stone caves and houses, many of which are located in the cliffs or dense forest where nobody sets foot. The famous ones include Guangcheng Cave, Zhaoyang Cave, Xuanhe Cave and Kongtong Cave. In addition, it is a rich water resource. The Yanzhi River flows from the north. Every spring, peach blossoms fall into the water and float on the current: a lovely sight. At the foot of the mountain, Tanzheng Lake flows calmly like a mirror, and its murmuring water sounds like a Chinese zither, giving the lake its name, Tanzheng Lake (Playing Zither Lake). Long History and Profound Religious Culture The father of Chinese culture, the Emperor Xuan Yuan, once visited Kongtong Mountain to consult the wise man Guang Chengzi on how to manage the country and maintain good health. From then on, Kongtong Mountain rapidly gained prestige. Later on, the King of Mu in the Western Zhou Dynasty (11th century BC-771 BC), the Emperor Qin Shi Huang and the Emperor Wu in Western Han Dynasty (206 BC - 24 AD), all followed him to visit Kongtong Mountain, which made the mountain more and more famous. Kongtong Mountain is the holy mountain of three religions: Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism. It is said that Taoism temples were being built on the mountain as early as in the Wei (220-265) and Jin (265-420) Dynasties. In the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), construction began on Taihe Palace and other attached Taoist buildings. Since then, Taoism has been handed down from one generation to another. Buddhism also flourished in Kongtong Mountain, as evidence of Buddhist rituals can be found in it from the Tang Dynasty (618-907). There are 19 Buddhist temples from the early Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). Today Buddhism and Taoism grow together in a harmonious atmosphere on the mountain, a situation which is unique to Kongtong Mountain. In addition, Kongtong Mountain has cultivated many Confucianism scholars such as Huang Fumi, the talented founder of Chinese Acupuncture. 5
My journey into the Kongtong Mountain, July 23 to 25, 2015 Initially, I planned to spend at least a week to experience the life as the Taoists do in the mountain. My plan was changed after I learned that I had to carry everything I needed on my back and climb to the top of the mountain (three hours of climbing). In addition, the Daoist living quarters have neither shower nor restroom (there are public restrooms outside the room). My cousin thought it would be too tough for me to stay there by myself and volunteered to go with me, but only for 2-3 days. In addition to visiting the beautiful scenery spots and various temples, we ate the same vegetarian food as the Taoists and tried to experience and understand Taoism as much as we could in this very short time. One of the questions I asked was why did you decide to become a Daoist and become a member of this temple? One of them told me he came here for food ; another one told me he was always interested in Daoism, and he decided to come here after he retired from his job. It turned out that some came to be Daoists because of a calling, and some others came here because of some traumatic life experiences - they came to seek solace. Consistent with the Taoist lassie faire philosophy, the Kongtong Daoist monastery was very loosely structured. Each Taoist on the mountain has a day job: each member is given a temple to take care of from 8:30am to 5:30pm. Their duties include cleaning, keeping incents burning, answering questions when tourists/pilgrims come. Although there are regular morning and evening changings, it s not mandatory for the members to attend. The life for Daoists on the mountain seems to be very simple and relaxed. The second question I asked was if they could feel Qi/energy of the mountain. Several long time Daoists on the mountain can feel Qi of the mountain - not only can they feel the Qi of the mountain, they can also tell the subtle energy emitting from different parts of the mountain, and whether the energy was compatible with the Qi in their bodies.... 6
I carried everything I needed for three days on my back and started to climb to the top of the Mount Kongtong. The Chinese characters on the stone tablet says: Up To the Heaven s Ladder. The journey took my cousin and I three hours with stops to enjoy the view. It s probably about three miles, more than 3,000 steps to climb, from the foot to the top of the mountain. It was tough but I was happy that I did it! Yellow Emperor Seeking the Way (Dao) It is said that an immortal named Guangchengzi once lived in a stone cave in the mountain, and the Yellow Emperor once came here to hear his preaching. So it is one of the birthplaces of Taoism in China. The first Emperor of the Qin Dynasty and Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. 7
It is quite common to see tourists who are most likely not officially Taoists and Buddhists kneel down and pray in front of Taoist god/gods or Buddhist god/gods. This is the Chinese character of Heart, carved on the wall leading up to some temples. Most Chinese agree that our mind is the seat of the divinity. It doesn t matter which god you believe as long as your heart is sincere. The couplet on the left says Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism are Trinity In One. On the right it says Spirit, Chi/Energy, and Divinity all originate from the same source. The four character sign on the top right corner says Sincerity is the key to the divine. 8
Although pictures are allowed when touring the Taoist temples from outside the temples, it is forbidden to take any pictures of deities inside the temples. My cousin recorded a brief moment of the service without permission. She was alarmed to learn later in the evening that nothing was recorded and there was a big hand chopping down at the end of her brief recording. A miracle? An omen? Her face turned white and quickly deleted the recording saying, I would not dare to do this kind of things in the future anymore. 9