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-- did you get a message welcoming you to the coursemail reflector? If not, please correct what s needed. 2
-- don t use secondary material from the web, as its quality is variable; cf. Wikipedia. Check first; cf. earlymoderntexts.com? 3
-- for future reference, as a study aid, I also put up a previous year s paper and exam assignments (along with samples of A work, plus the TA s comments) -- also, some recommended readings (for later) -- other pages contain information about me and my interests in philosophy, along with photos 4
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-- focus is more intellectual; intended in the first instance to give philosophy students basic knowledge of the main figures and positions in the history of ethical theory 6
-- emphasis on the major figures in the subject, figures that philosophy majors ought to know about, rather than the most exciting figures (e.g. Plato, Nietszche), though these authors also have had an important influence. We have other courses focusing on at least some of these figures. 7
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-- let s first locate moral theory ( N.B. moral and ethical used interchangeably) in terms of prior entries on the chart -- vs. practical ethics: -- practical (as in PHIL 140) focuses on particular cases, often cases currently in dispute; less abstract, more accessible for beginners to philosophy -- ethical theory emphasizes general principles meant to explain our intuitions on cases we tend to agree about, as well as yielding answers to some disputed cases -- at a higher level, philosophical ethics divides into meta- and normative ethics: -- normative ethics is ethics proper, answering what we normally think of as ethical questions, practical or theoretical, about what s right or wrong, good or bad, etc. -- metaethics takes normative ethics as its subject matter and asks other kinds of philosophical questions about it, e.g. whether and how we can have knowledge of it; we ll see a bit of this, especially in Hume, but as a separate subject it s primarily a product of twentieth-century philosophy (as in PHIL 640 and at least some versions of 440) -- philosophical ethics as a body of thought, rather than behavior patterns (so that Kant s ethics doesn t refer to his moral practices but rather a theory he came up with) -- ethical theory can be characterized as a branch of philosophical ethics aiming to systematize morality into an organized body of thought -- can sometimes be taken to include metaethics, though I m going to simplify a bit to construct a coherent chart; usual use of the term refers to the more abstract and systematic areas of normative ethics -- consists in philosophers attempts to account for our ordinary moral beliefs ( intuitions ) with general principles or other standards of behavior (e.g. an ideal of the morally good person) 9
-- building toward overall map of the area (detailed enough to locate Mill s view), showing where ethical theory is located, along with the classification of the particular authors we re reading, plus others I ll mention for contrast -- just meant by way of preview, with more terms mentioned than I d expect you to remember; the crucial terms will come up again later -- print out the ultimate map to refer to as we do further readings; finding it on the web as part of your first assignment should help you see if you can find your way around my web site 10
-- ethical theory has its own subdivisions, extending the chart lower -- virtue ethics: the approach of classical philosophers, recently revived -- focuses on questions of moral good, applicable to persons or their character and motives -- links ethics to psychology -- examples we re reading: Aristotle, Hume -- duty ethics: generally the more modern approach, despite Hume (and contemporary versions of virtue ethics) -- focuses on questions of right or wrong; applicable to acts or rules of conduct -- links ethics primarily to law -- examples we re reading = Mill, Kant, Rawls 11
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-- deontological ethics based on Greek word for ought -- often contrasted with teleological ethics (based on the Greek word for end or aim ; but that term crisscrosses the virtue/duty distinction, applying to Aristotle as well as Mill); better term = consequentialism -- takes rules or principles as determining what acts are right; essentially a more general version of the sort of approach we find in the Ten Commandments and similar religious codes of rules -- different versions depend on the nature and number of the principles taken as basic: -- the categorical imperative: a single principle (though with several formulations) due to Kant; amounts to an unconditional ought from which more specific rules may be derived -- prima facie duties: a more pluralistic approach due to twentieth-century English philosopher W. D. Ross -- contractarianism/contractualism: basic principles of ethics (or sometimes just justice) as derived from group consent -- includes historical social contract theories, as in Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, plus a more modern approach that takes the contract as merely hypothetical, basing ethics (or for Rawls, political justice) on what people would consent to under certain conditions -- recently, the word contractualism has been used to distinguish those versions that claim inspiration from Kant (who was influenced by Rousseau) and begin with moral presuppositions rather than attempting to reduce them to nonmoral, following Hobbes 13
-- note that Mill misclassifies Epicurus as a fellow utilitarian -- teleological (but covers Aristotle too -- consequentialist ethics takes right action as explained in terms of good consequences -- also focuses on questions about what s right, but explains right action in terms of a more fundamental concept of nonmoral good = experiences or events that are good for people, etc. -- summed up most simply as the right maximizes the good, though there are more complex versions not involving maximizing = creating the most good -- in other words, the right act (of all alternatives that are possible for a given agent) is the one that produces the best consequences -- different variants, depending on whether the good consequences that matter to an act s rightness are said to be -- consequences that benefit the agent: egoism (Epicurus) -- everyone ought to promote his own good -- sometimes not thought to be an ethical theory (since it can t resolve conflicts among individual agents), but rather a competitor to ethics -- consequences that benefit anyone, without distinguishing persons: utilitarianism (Bentham and Mill) -- often thought of as benefiting everyone, or the majority, but that s not really implied by the classical (Bentham/Mill) version -- instead, focuses on the total good, a lump sum whose quantity matters independently of how it s distributed, i.e. who gets how much -- basic issue between deontological and consequentialist approaches = rules versus results: -- whether a rule may be broken (e.g., it s whether OK to tell a lie) in circumstances where it s necessary to improve the situation for all concerned -- cf. Kant s favorite example, making a lying promise to secure a loan that one won t be able to replay (presumably from someone who wouldn t really suffer if he lost the money) ) 14
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-- what s called classical utilitarianism (essentially meaning the earliest version, i.e. Bentham, Mill, and others) understands the good in a particular way, as happiness in a sense that s explainable in terms of pleasure (meaning pleasure minus pain, or balance of pleasure over pain) -- hedonism comes from the Greek for pleasure, but in philosophy it doesn t mean living a life devoted to sensual indulgence, as it does in common speech; cf. Epicurus s egoistic view, on which the best way to maximize your own pleasure was to minimize your desires, to avoid the pain of unsatisfied desire -- pleasure said to be the only thing that s good intrinsically, or in itself, with other things considered good only instrumentally, insofar as they promote pleasure, again in the sense of pleasure minus pain; cf. example of taking a medicine to cure an illness, i.e. minimize pain -- Bentham s hedonism was meant to make the rightness of an act something one could calculate mathematically, at least in principle, by summing the pleasure/pain value of its consequences across all persons over time; but there are big problems about whether it s possible to compare different people s experiences, or the experiences deriving from different activities -- Mill instead, in ch. 2, defends qualitative distinctions among pleasures; i.e. he claims that pleasures differ, not just in quantity, but also according to whether the activities they re associated with are mental (intellectual or spiritual) or merely physical, the former ranked higher than the latter; there are questions about whether this still amounts to hedonism, strictly speaking -- contrasting view is pluralistic utlitarianism (also called agathistic, or ideal utilitarianism), espoused by twentieth-century philosopher G. E. Moore, who argued that some things were good independently of whether they resulted in pleasure, or any conscious experience -- e.g. beauty would be good in itself even if there were no one to behold it -- knowledge as good in itself, even where it makes you unhappy (e.g. knowledge that your spouse is cheating on you) -- personal relations: cf. spouse who dies, etc 16
-- further distinctions come up in interpreting Mill, e.g. between actual and expected (probabilistic) utilitarianism, act- and rule-, etc.; see Crisp s Intro (and the endnotes?) for a fairly complete account 17