Working with Primary Sources

BEDFORD CUSTOM TUTORIAL FOR HISTORY Working with Primary Sources As a student in a history course, you probably have some preconceived ideas about what you will be studying and how you will study it. But your college-level history may surprise you. You may have thought that the study of history is about facts, when the study of history has as much to do with working with and evaluating sources and as evidence as it does with learning dates, names, events, and places from the past. In this tutorial, you will learning the following: What exactly are historical sources The difference between primary and secondary sources How to read and analyze a written source How to read and analyze a visual source What Are Historical Sources? The stories historians tell in books, articles, and lectures are pieced together from hundreds, often thousands, of documents, objects, and artifacts. The challenge is to turn all of those individual pieces of evidence into a convincing, compelling version of the past. That s no easy task. Most historical evidence was produced by people with no direct interest in telling the story of their times. While historians do have access to the occasional chronicle or official account, far more typical is the kind of evidence people produce to meet immediate needs, not to enlighten future generations. A merchant bills his or her customer, and creates a historical document in the process. A woman is convicted of theft, an unhappy event that is commemorated in the legal documents associated with her trial. An artisan crafts an engraved silver chalice for a wealthy client, and another piece of evidence is produced. The bill, the records, and the chalice all offer valuable clues about the past, but none were created for that purpose. It is up to the historian to tease out the implications of the document or artifact, and to make connections between the evidence and his or her historical argument or thesis. 1 216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 1

2 Working with Primary Sources Distinguishing between Primary and Secondary Sources Before we go any further in our discussion, it s important to explain the distinction between primary and secondary sources. A primary source is a document, object, or image created during the time period under study. Such sources are the basic evidence historians use to construct their stories about the past. Secondary sources, in contrast, offer interpretations or analyses of the past. In other words, primary sources are the subject of historical research, and secondary sources are the results of historical research. Your textbook, professional journals, scholarly books, and even Web sites can all serve as useful secondary sources. Beyond such written secondary sources, there are also many different types of visual secondary sources. Maps, tables, charts, graphs, and videos can all be used as effective tools for presenting a historian s analysis of primary sources. Thus, examples of secondary sources include: Textbook Scholarly journal presenting recent work in modern history Scholarly journal open to the best scholarship in any historical field Microhistory that explores the significance of a single event Multivolume history that covers many centuries and many places Map showing the routes taken by famous sixteenth-century explorers Map showing eighteenth-century Atlantic trade patterns Chart showing the decline in economic output during the Great Depression Graph showing changes in average per capita income over time Table comparing literacy levels at different places in a given year Video exploring the experiences of real soldiers during World War I Museum Web site that links objects in its collection to historical developments Historian s Web site that includes resources for students and instructors As helpful as secondary sources can be, you need to be careful when selecting them, particularly when you look for information online. While professional journals and university publishers review proposed articles and books, and only publish those that meet their standards, no such vetting process occurs prior to Internet publication. It s up to you to carefully examine any Web site you propose to use as a resource to make sure the information it contains is reliable. As a student of history, you ll use both primary and secondary sources, often in conjunction with each another. For example, your instructor may ask you to read and analyze a letter written by the sixteenth-century 216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 2

Analyzing Written Primary Sources 3 Protestant reformer Martin Luther. To get the most out of your reading of this primary source, you ll need to examine it carefully, noting the details of Luther s ideas and arguments. You ll also need to consult your textbook, a secondary source, to help you understand the historical context in which Luther s letter was written. Thus, the two kinds of sources work together. Primary sources, like the letter, provide an opportunity for you to develop your own interpretations of the past. Secondary sources, like your textbook, provide a framework for your analysis, helping you to place primary sources in the context of the events and developments of their time. Analyzing Written Primary Sources Reading and analyzing historical documents can sometimes feel like a daunting challenge, particularly if the document s vocabulary, style, and subject matter are new to you. The task can be made easier, however, if you proceed in a systematic fashion, starting with the establishment of basic facts, and then moving toward more complex levels of analysis. With this in mind, the following six questions provide a step-by-step approach to the analysis of historical documents. Who wrote this document, when, and where? The analysis of historical documents begins with the establishment of the basic facts: where, when, and by whom was the document written. These facts are critical because if we want to discover the historical significance of a document, we need to start by situating it and its author in a specific time and place. Sometimes these questions have straightforward, precise answers. We know, for example, that Mahatma Gandhi wrote Hind Swaraj, a work that provided a blueprint for the Indian independence movement, in 1909 and that it was published in India. In other cases, however, we must be content with educated guesses. We may never know exactly when, where, and by whom an ancient Egyptian papyrus was created. The best we can do is to use the available evidence to deduce the most likely answers to these questions, and acknowledge that our conclusions are subject to revision if new information comes to light. Identifying the author is also important because it alerts us to the issue of author bias. In this context, author bias does not necessarily refer to an intentional effort to distort or deceive. Instead, it refers to the fact that every author has his or her own agenda and particular point of view. Thus, it is not enough simply to know an author s name. We need to know something about the author s background, about how this author viewed the world, and about how he or she came to produce the document we re examining. 216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 3

4 Working with Primary Sources What type of document is this? All written genres have their own their own distinctive rules and characteristics. Sometimes those rules and characteristics are relatively rigid. A formal legal plea, for example, may follow guidelines about content and organization established by law. In other instances, such as personal letters, the rules of the genre may be looser. In either case, identifying what type of document we are dealing with is an important step in establishing its importance. If we know what kinds of rules and conventions an author was working within, we ll be able to discern their influence on the document the author created. Just as important, we ll notice when the author deviates from established practices and produces something new and unique. Who is the intended audience of the document? There is often a close connection between a document and its intended audience. A twentieth-century government propaganda initiative may have been intended to reach a mass audience that included representatives of all segments of society. In sharp contrast, the readers of a legal decision rendered by a sixteenth-century high court may have been limited to a small number of highly educated elites. Finally, a personal letter may have had an intended audience of one, its recipient. Identifying the audience for a document is important because when authors create documents, they often makes choices of language, style, and content based on their assumptions about their audience s preferences and beliefs. Moreover, the historical importance of a document is determined, at least in part, by who read it and what influence it had on its readers. What are the main points of the document? As you set out on your exploration of a document, you ll want to start by identifying its main points. For this reason, while reading, you should mark words, phrases, and passages that strike you as particularly important. With this task completed, you can go back over the document and start to make connections between its main points and the specific choices the author made about style, organization, content, and emphasis. Why was this document written? Documents are always written for a reason and that reason shapes the document s content and significance. For example, a formal declaration of war might be intended both to announce the commencement of hostilities and to present the case that war is necessary. Understanding these intentions leads us to ask follow-up questions. What argument did the 216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 4

Working through a Written Primary Source 5 authors make in favor going to war? Who was this argument meant to convince? How effective was it? In contrast, a letter from a father to a son offering advice might have been written solely for the recipient s benefit. In this case, we might ask ourselves what light the letter sheds on familial relationships during the period in which it was written. How formal was the letter? Was it affectionate or businesslike? What kind of advice did the father offer? Was the advice presented as suggestions or as commands? What does this document reveal about the time and place in which it was written? The point of analyzing a document or artifact is not to produce a mere summary or description. It is to build a case for the document s or artifact s historical meaning. It must be stressed that there is no single right answer to this question. This is because readers bring their own goals and purposes to their analyses. A military historian might read an account of a medieval battle in order to gain insight into the evolution of military strategies and tactics. A social historian might be more interested in what the account tells us about who fought medieval battles and how they experienced warfare. Finally, a political historian might be most interested in the implications of the battle for future relations between medieval states. As long as the argument presented by each of these historians is grounded in fact and is logically consistent, they are equally valid. Working through a Written Primary Source To help you better understand the nature of historical analysis and develop your own analytical abilities, apply the questions and approaches described above to the following historical document. Be sure to read the headnote that introduces the document first. It serves as a secondary source, alerting you to critical issues of historical context, and thus guides and illuminates your reading. Once you ve read the headnote, work through the six questions in order, beginning with the basic facts and finishing with general conclusions about the document s historical importance. TITLE Mary Prince, The History of Mary Prince (1831) HEADNOTE Mary Prince was born around 1788 and died sometime after 1833. She was born into slavery in the West Indies and was sold four times while a slave. In 1828, she obtained her freedom when her final master took her 216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 5

6 Working with Primary Sources to England where slavery was no longer legally recognized. Her master had counted on Prince s desire to return to her husband in the West Indies and her lack of friends in England to prevent her from exercising her legal rights, but the harsh abuse she suffered at the hands of her master and his wife convinced her that she had to leave them. Once free, she joined the abolitionist movement. It was in this context that Mary dictated her life story to a friend and fellow abolitionist, a Miss S, in 1831. DOCUMENT He [Mary s master] had an ugly fashion of stripping himself quite naked, and ordering me then to wash him in a tub of water. This was worse to me than all the licks. Sometimes when he called me to wash him I would not come, my eyes were so full of shame. He would then come to beat me. One time I had plates and knives in my hand, and I dropped both plates and knives, and some of the plates were broken. He struck me so severely for this, that at last I defended myself, for I thought it was high time to do so. I then told him I would not live longer with him, for he was a very indecent man very spiteful, and too indecent; with no shame for his servants, no shame for his own flesh. So I went away to a neighboring house and sat down and cried till the next morning, when I went home again, not knowing what else to do.... I am often much vexed, and I feel great sorrow when I hear some people in this country say, that the slaves do not need better usage, and do not want to be free. They believe the foreign people, who deceive them, and say slaves are happy. I say, Not so. How can slaves be happy when they have the halter round their neck and the whip upon their back? and are disgraced and thought no more of than beasts? and are separated from their mothers, and husbands, and children, and sisters, just as cattle are sold and separated? Is it happiness for a driver in the field to take down his wife or sister or child, and strip them, and whip them in such a disgraceful manner? women that have had children exposed in the open field to shame! There is no modesty or decency shown by the owner to his slaves; men, women, and children are exposed alike. Since I have been here I have often wondered how English people can go out into the West Indies and act in such a beastly manner. But when they go to the West Indies, they forget God and all feeling of shame, I think, since they can see and do such things. They tie up slaves like hogs moor them up like cattle, and they lick them, so as hogs, or cattle, or horses never were flogged; and yet they come home and say, and make some good people believe, that slaves don t want to get out of slavery. But they put a cloak about the truth. It is not so. All slaves want to be free to be free is very sweet. I will say the truth to English people who may read this history that my good friend, Miss S, is now writ- 216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 6

Working through a Written Primary Source 7 ing down for me. I have been a slave myself I know what slaves feel I can tell by myself what other slaves feel, and by what they have told me. The man that says slaves be quite happy in slavery that they don t want to be free that man is either ignorant or a lying person. I never heard a slave say so. Source: Mary Prince, The History of Mary Prince, A West Indian Slave, Related by Herself (London: F. Westley and A. H. Davis, 1831), 13, 23. Now, let s apply our six steps to the document you just read. Who wrote this document, when, and where? The History of Mary Prince was published in England in 1831, in the midst of a great push for the abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire. Abolitionists would achieve this goal two years later in 1833. As you learned from the headnote, Mary Prince s autobiography was dictated to a friend and member of the abolitionist movement, a Miss S. Under these circumstances, we are entitled to wonder to what degree Miss S shaped the narrative. Did she simply write down everything that Mary Prince said, or did she suggest topics and/or alter Mary s words? What type of document is it? The History of Mary Prince is a slave narrative, an autobiography in which a slave recounts his or her personal history. British and American abolitionist groups played a central role in their production, and the characteristics of the genre reflect this fact. Slave narratives were meant to persuade the public that slavery was a sin. Thus, they emphasized the humanity of slaves and the immorality of slave owners. They also sought to connect the evils of slavery to a real person, thereby making it easier for readers with little direct experience of slavery to empathize with the institution s victims. Who is the intended audience of the document? The History of Mary Prince was a political document. It was intended to shape the political debate over the abolition of slavery. Its publishers, therefore, hoped to reach as much of the British reading public as possible. It should be emphasized that this public was not limited to men. Women played a critical role in both the American and British abolitionist movement, and the movement sought to persuade both men and women to join the cause. The account of the sexual abuse Mary Prince suffered at the hands of her master may have had a particularly powerful impact on female readers. 216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 7

8 Working with Primary Sources What are the main points of the document? The excerpts from The History of Mary Prince included here sought to accomplish two key objectives. First, the account of Mary s humiliation at the hands of her master offered readers a stark contrast between his shameless immorality and her own modesty and innocence. Second, Mary s stirring declaration that all slaves longed for freedom countered the prevailing notion that people of African descent were natural-born slaves and were, in fact, happiest when enslaved. Why was the document written? The History of Mary Prince was intended to advance the abolitionist cause. By allowing her personal story to be written down and published, Mary became a participant in the movement. Slave narratives like Mary s were a powerful tool for fighting against some of the most dangerous ideas advanced by the enemies of abolition. Mary s piety, intelligence, and passion for freedom directly contradicted the stereotypes of African slaves offered up by the defenders of slavery. What does this document reveal about the time and place in which it was written? The History of Mary Prince provides historians with a window into both the lives of slaves in the West Indies and into the alliance between blacks and whites that culminated in the abolition of slavery in the British Empire. Mary s account offers a detailed picture of the lives of female slaves in the West Indies in the eighteenth century. At the same time, we must not forget that her story was created in collaboration with white abolitionists. As such, its content and language reflect, in part, her collaborators values and beliefs. This does not mean that Mary s story is not truthful, but it does mean that its telling was not entirely her own. Analyzing Visual Primary Sources Written documents are at the heart of much historical analysis, but they are not the only sources of historical evidence. Clues about historical developments can also be discovered in material objects, in art, and in architecture. Such nonwritten sources present their own distinct challenges. In general, they require more interpretation and extrapolation on the part of the historian than do written sources, which are often explicit about their motives and messages. Nonetheless, the process of analyzing a painting or a photograph is very much like analyzing a document you 216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 8

Analyzing Visual Primary Sources 9 begin with six questions similar to the ones you have already applied to The History of Mary Prince, moving from basic facts to more complex analytical issues. Who created this image, when, and where? Just as was the case with written sources, the analysis of visual evidence begins with the establishment of basic facts: where, when, and by whom was the image created. And again, as was the case with written sources, our answers cannot always be as precise as we would like. Sometimes this is because we simply lack definitive information. In other cases, the circumstances under which the evidence was created complicate the question. For example, most art produced during the Italian Renaissance was commissioned by wealthy patrons. Such patrons had a significant say in the size, style, and subject matter of the works they commissioned. Given this, might we not make the argument that such patrons should be considered as cocreators? What type of image is this? To fully answer this question, we need go beyond simple answers like this is a photograph, or this is a painting. If it is a photograph, is it candid or is it staged? If it s a painting, is it a landscape or a formal portrait, a religious scene or a depiction of a historical event? Like written sources, visual sources often belong to genres. If we can identify an image s genre, along with its rules and conventions, we take a big step forward in our process of interpretation and analysis. Who are the intended viewers of the image? The intended audience for an image gives us crucial clues about its importance. Suppose we re looking at the cover of a popular American magazine from the 1950s. We may deduce that the image was meant to appeal to a wide range of people and that s its meaning was one that most people of that time and place would have understood at a glance. In contrast, imagine the subject of our analysis is a religious fresco painted on an interior wall of a chapel. Confronted with such an image, we might ask ourselves who worshipped in the chapel and what role the image played in their religious practice. 216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 9

10 Working with Primary Sources What is the central message of the image? Images can convey powerful messages, but they are often challenging to decipher. Instead of using words, artists use visual elements to communicate their ideas. As a historian, your task is to learn how to read an image, to make connections between the artist s choices about composition, color, and subject matter on the one hand, and his or her intended message on the other. As you did with written sources, start with the image s main features, then move on to the details and their interrelationships. Why was the image produced? Like written sources, visual sources are created for a wide range of purposes. A painting, sculpture, or photograph may be meant to educate, to persuade, to enlighten, or to shock. Understanding this purpose is central to discovering its historical meaning. For example, Egyptian pharaohs did not commission paintings, sculptures, and other art objects for the pyramids simply to serve as decorations. The pyramids were tombs and the pharaohs believed the objects they contained would be available to them in the afterlife. Thus, without an understanding of Egyptian religion, it is impossible to achieve a full appreciation of ancient Egyptian art. What does this image reveal about the society and time period in which it was created? A visual source can often illuminate many different aspects of the past, and there is no single correct answer to this question. A fifteenth-century painting of the Madonna and Child, for example, might help us understand fifteenth-century religious beliefs and practices, social and political hierarchies, and gender roles. This does not mean that the interpretation of a visual source is simply a matter of opinion. As students of history, we are interested in understanding the actions and beliefs of the people of the past. To achieve this goal, we must ground our interpretations in a detailed understanding of historical context. Working through a Primary Visual Source With the guidelines above in mind, let s examine a visual source. As you did with the written source, apply the questions and approaches described above to the example, beginning by establishing the basic facts, and then moving on to broader, more conceptual issues. Be sure to take the time to examine the image carefully and to read the headnote and image caption before you turn to the questions. 216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 10

Working through a Primary Visual Source 11 TITLE We Build a New Europe (1950) HEADNOTE When World War II ended in 1945, much of Europe was devastated physically, financially, politically, and emotionally. To alleviate the worst material suffering and to prevent European nations from turning to the Communist Soviet Union for relief, in 1948, the United States introduced the European Recovery Program (ERP), often referred to as the Marshall Plan. In 1950, the European leaders of the ERP held a poster contest on the topic Intra-European Cooperation for a Better Standard of Living. One of the entries by Austrian Kurt Krapeik was titled We Build a New Europe and is shown below. Source: Library of Congress Now, let s apply our six steps to the image. 216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 11

12 Working with Primary Sources Who created this image, when, and where? The poster was created by an Austrian citizen, Kurt Krapeik, in 1950, five years after the end of World War II. Keep in mind that Austria was part of the losing Axis powers during the conflict. Consider whether the artist s nationality had an impact on his message. His experience of the war provides some context for analysis of the poster. What type of image is this? This image is a poster, meant to convey a particular theme cooperation among European nations. Who were its intended viewers? The intended audience would be the committee deciding on a winner for the poster contest the European leaders of the European Recovery Program. At the same time, the artist would have understood that the poster might have a broader viewership, in particular other Europeans with their own experiences of World War II and its aftermath. Thus, the message of the image is meant for any European who might see the poster. What is the central message of the image? The central message of the poster is both straightforward and complex. On the one hand, the burned-out tree that is the centerpiece of the image illustrates the devastation wrought upon Europe by the war. It suggests that Europe went through a literal burning of itself almost to the roots. However, the message is also optimistic. Out of the burned limbs of the tree, new leaves have emerged, and doves (which represent peace) flock to the tree. Inside the nest are the flags of the European nations which suggest a rebirth. Finally, the acronym ERP has been incorporated into an American flag, suggesting that the United States and the ERP have both played a crucial role in helping the new Europe to emerge. Why was the image produced? On the most basic level, it was produced for a contest. Other questions emerge, however. Perhaps the artist had begun to create this image before the contest was announced. Whether it was or not, the artist produced this image to illustrate a sense of hope and new beginnings for Europe. It also credits the United States for helping this process through its economic aid. 216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 12

Conclusion 13 What does this image reveal about the society and time period in which it was created? The poster offers historians an insight into the devastation that Europe experienced in World War II. In particular, it may give us particular insight to the experiences of Austria in the war. By 1950, Europe had begun to rebuild its buildings and roads, its political structures, its economies, and its morale. Even five years after the end of the war, the poster reveals that there is still much work to be done. At the same time, the poster also suggests that the key to recovery lies in European nations cooperation with one another, not in continued conflict. Conclusion As our examples have demonstrated, the successful analysis of historical primary sources requires you to examine the evidence closely, to proceed carefully and logically, and to use your creativity and imagination. It also requires you to draw on your knowledge of historical context, adding to it when necessary by consulting secondary sources such as textbooks, articles, and Web sites. This last point is crucial. Historical documents and images cannot be analyzed in isolation. They were created in a particular time and place. They reflect the experiences, values, and beliefs of their creators. Thus, your job as a student of history is not simply to describe the content of a document or image but to bring it back to life by placing it within the unique context in which it came into being. 216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 13

216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 14

216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 15

216781_05_WorkingPrimarySourcesWest_6.5x9.125_r1jh.indd 16