Masaryk University Faculty of Arts Department of English and American Studies English Language and Literature Michaela Teličková Words to the heat of deeds too cold breath gives : Thoughts vs. Deeds in Hamlet and Macbeth Bachelor s Diploma Thesis Supervisor: Mgr. Filip Krajník, Ph.D. 2015
I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography... Author s signature
Table of Contents Introduction... 1 1.The Notion of Masculinity in Hamlet and Macbeth... 3 1.1.Early Modern England and Its Notion of Masculinity... 3 1.2.Masculinity in Hamlet and Macbeth... 4 1.2.1. Masculinity Facing the Supernatural... 5 1.2.2. Masculinity and Grief... 6 1.2.3. Masculinity vs. Cowardice... 9 1.3.Conclusion... 13 2.The Supernatural in Hamlet and Macbeth... 15 2.1.Early Modern Beliefs about the Supernatural... 15 2.1.1. Ghosts... 16 2.1.2. Witches... 17 2.2.Ghosts and Witches as Initiators of Action... 18 2.2.1. The Supernatural Urging the Living to Action... 19 2.2.2. Beware the Corruption of Your Mind... 22 2.3.Conclusion... 25 3.Murderous Thoughts and Deeds in Hamlet and Macbeth... 27 3.1.Murder as a Subject of Fascination... 27 3.2.Murders in Hamlet and Macbeth... 28 3.2.1. Regicides... 28 3.2.2. Heedless vs. Planned Murderous Rampages... 31 3.3.Conclusion... 34 Conclusion... 36 Bibliography... 38 Summary... 41 Resumé... 42
Introduction Among the things that William Shakespeare s famous tragedies Hamlet (c.1600) and Macbeth (c. 1606) have in common is their employment of the contrasting motifs of thoughts and deeds. A. C. Bradley conveys this idea in his Shakespearean Tragedy: In the heroes of both plays the passage from thought to a critical resolution and action is difficult, and excites the keenest interest (Lecture IX). The purpose of this thesis is to discuss this contrast between thoughts and deeds, as portrayed in the two plays. This contrast mostly occurs in the situations connected to the notion of masculinity, the role of the Supernatural, and murderous intentions. The first chapter deals with the concept of masculinity. It examines the attitude of the early modern England towards masculinity, especially in connection to the Galenic one-sex model. Then it focuses on the particular scenes in Hamlet and Macbeth which portray manliness in relation to thoughts and action, namely: 1) masculinity confronted by the Supernatural, 2) masculinity challenged by grief, and 3) masculinity opposed by cowardice. The second chapter explores the subject of the Supernatural. Firstly, it concentrates on the early modern beliefs about supernatural phenomena, especially about ghosts and witches. Secondly, it considers the depiction of the Supernatural in Hamlet and Macbeth and its roles in the protagonists incentives for action: 1) the first appearance of the Supernatural and its use of prophecies so as to initiate dramatic action, and 2) the re-entry of the Supernatural for the purpose of either averting or advancing Hamlet and Macbeth s corruption of minds. The final chapter discusses the murders and murderous thoughts which occur in Hamlet and Macbeth. It shortly deals with the early modern viewpoint on the matter, upon which it focuses on the individual scenes of the plays when a murder is 1
committed: 1) on the regicides, which are distinguished from the other murders by their impact both on the states of Denmark and Scotland and on the minds of the murderers, and 2) on the other murders carried out by Hamlet and Macbeth and the consequences the murders have for the minds of both of them. 2
1. The Notion of Masculinity in Hamlet and Macbeth This chapter discusses notions of masculinity that are used in both Hamlet and Macbeth in connection to the contrast between thoughts and deeds. Early modern England believed that men should be bold, resolute, and ready to act whenever it was necessary; if men failed to carry out brave deeds and thus proved themselves to be cowards, they were in danger of deteriorating into women who had no choice but to stay passive and quiescent. Therefore, being a man was directly linked to being active. There are several scenes in both Hamlet and Macbeth where is this relation between masculinity and action violated. In these scenes, dealing: 1) with supernatural beings, 2) with approaching grief, and 3) with accusations of cowardice, both Hamlet and Macbeth experience a conflict between thinking too much and having to act. 1.1. Early Modern England and Its Notion of Masculinity Early modern England believed in a one-sex model based on a belief that human bodies were homogenous and the only difference was that women lacked heat to protrude their sexual organs on the outside (Schleiner 180). Men were therefore perceived as the primary instrument, a perfect version of the human body, while women were inferior to them (Aughterson 47). As a result, men were also supposed to be more resolute and more courageous than their female counterparts. Being a male meant being active as solely the notion of being a man was acquired and asserted through performance (Howell 7). Men usually attested their masculinity by heroic deeds: thus Macbeth is praised for his battle prowess and his victory over Macdonwald as he unseamed him from the nave to th chops (1. 2. 22) and Hamlet is described as [t]he courtier s, soldier s, scholar s, eye, tongue, sword (3. 1. 153; my emphasis) and given soldier s funeral rites as a sign of great honour. 3
Cowardice and inactivity thus implied that men were not masculine enough, that they were effeminate. Since the early modern English society and hierarchy was based on the belief that life originated in men and women represented a mere vessel (Howell 8), male sluggishness constituted a real problem of not just a personal, but also social dimension. Becoming inactive and effeminate dissipated the male body upon which power is socially constructed, mediated, and legitimated, which subsequently threatened to overthrow the society with chaos (Howell 8). As there was always a danger that men would slide back towards imperfect femininity, this threat of a chaotic society was a rather serious one (McEachern 137). 1.2. Masculinity in Hamlet and Macbeth Both Hamlet and Macbeth deal with the question of masculinity in connection to reasons causing the leading characters to hesitate about their actions. This part of the chapter discusses several scenes that are related to the concept of masculinity and observes how they pertain to the contrast between thoughts and deeds, namely scenes dealing with 1) the Supernatural, 2) grief, and 3) cowardice. Both Hamlet and Macbeth admit to being frightened when they meet supernatural beings, though each of them handles the situation differently and these encounters result in divergent directions in each of the plays (see part 1.2.1. below). Another instance when their manliness is questioned is dealing with death and grief. Claudius reproaches Hamlet for his unmanly grief (1. 2. 94) as he is mourning his father and Macbeth advises the thanes to put on manly readiness (2. 3. 126) to postpone mourning so that they could deal with the arisen need to find a new ruler and to decide who is guilty for King Duncan s murder. Hamlet and Macbeth s masculinity is also potentially undermined when they are accused of cowardice. In his famous soliloquy To be, or not to be (3. 1. 56) 4
Hamlet contemplates human condition, proclaiming that conscience does make cowards of us all (3. 1. 83) and indirectly implying that the fear of consequences, of tainting his mind, makes him a coward. Macbeth s masculinity, on the other hand, is challenged by his wife: When you durst do it, then you were a man (1. 7. 50) as she tries to persuade him to take action and kill the king. 1.2.1. Masculinity Facing the Supernatural When Macbeth encounters the Weird Sisters for the first time in Act I, Scene III and hears their prophecy, he seems to be rapt withal (1. 3. 57), with the terrible thoughts which they evoke. Later on, during a brief aside, he confesses that it is the thought of the necessary employed means of achieving his prophesied fortune that makes him so frightened: Macbeth. If good, why do I yield to that suggestion Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair And make my seated heart knock at my ribs, Against the use of nature? Present fears Are less than horrible imaginings. My thought, whose murder yet is but fantastical, Shakes so my single state of man That function is smothered in surmise, And nothing is but what is not. (Macbeth 1. 3. 135-43) His single state of man (1. 3. 141) is so shaken with the thought of murdering king Duncan that, at the moment, he is incapable of acting on it in any way. He decides not to actively pursue this venture for now as fate might cause his coronation even without his endeavour (see Chapter 2.2.1.). In the eyes of Lady Macbeth his refusal of becoming an active agent of his future means that he is not a man, or at least not a man enough. 5
When Hamlet meets the Ghost in Act I, Scene IV for the first time, he seems to be stricken with fear as well. It is not the Ghost s words, however, that make him afraid, as his appearance is terrifying enough to do that: Hamlet. What may this mean, That thou, dead corse, again in complete steel Revisits thus the glimpses of the moon, Making night hideous and we fools of nature So horridly to shake our disposition With thoughts beyond the reaches of our souls? Say, why is this? Wherefore? What should we do? (Hamlet 1. 4. 51-57) He asserts that the Ghost s appearance is horrifying enough to frighten him and to cause horrific thoughts that shake our disposition (1. 4. 55). Unlike Macbeth, however, he is not rendered incapable of action. On the contrary, he immediately requires the Ghost to reveal what he wants him to do. Instead of being paralysed by fear, he forces his friends to let him go into a certain danger. Thus he proves himself to be a man as he remains active and does not allow fate to decide about his future. Macbeth s encounter with the Weird Sisters results in a decision not to pursue fulfilment of the prophecy, since he had time to think about it in his aside and the thought of the murder horrifies his single state of man (1. 3. 141). In contrast, even though Hamlet admits that the thoughts the Ghost evokes frighten him, he still demands the Ghost to reveal the reason to his visitation; he would heedlessly hasten to revenge, if the Ghost did not urge him not to corrupt his mind by not thinking about his deeds. 1.2.2. Masculinity and Grief Act I, Scene II of Hamlet marks another instance challenging Hamlet s masculinity, when Claudius reproaches him for grieving his father too much: 6
Claudius. But to persever In obstinate condolement is a course Of impious stubbornness, tis unmanly grief, It shows a will most incorrect to heaven, A heart unfortified, a mind impatient, An understanding simple and unschool d. (Hamlet 1. 2. 92-97) Claudius implies that mourning the dead and thinking of death excessively is unmanly and, therefore, effeminate. In doing so, he metaphorically denies Hamlet s ability to act; however, this feminine part of Hamlet does not stop him from being courageous and manly, it only prevents him from acting without thinking about it first if he chooses to listen to it (see part 1.2.3. below). While reproaching Hamlet, Claudius directly compares Hamlet s idle behaviour to his own actions that he describes at the beginning of the scene: Claudius. Though yet of Hamlet our dear brother s death The memory be green, and that it us befitted To bear our hearts in grief, and our whole kingdom To be contracted in one brow of woe, Yet so far hath discretion fought with nature That we with wisest sorrow think on him Together with remembrance of ourselves. Therefore our sometimes sister, now our queen, Th imperial jointress to this warlike state, Have we, as twere with defeated joy, With an auspicious and a dropping eye, With mirth in funeral and with dirge in marriage, In equal scale weighing delight and dole, Taken to wife. (Hamlet 1. 2. 1-14) Death of his brother has not stopped Claudius from acting from marrying his brother s wife and being crowned the King, which then implies that he was not genuine when mourning his brother since that should render him incapable of acting as shown on his example of Hamlet and as discussed below considering the scenes of Macbeth. After Duncan s death in Act II, Scene III of Macbeth as the thanes are gathered together after discovering the tragedy, Macbeth makes a suggestion to put on manly readiness, / And meet i the hall together (2. 3. 126-27). He invites them to take at least some sort 7
of an action to come to a resolution as to what to do next and not to act like women, even though they are mostly incapacitated by their grief. His previous action of rashly killing the servants guarding Duncan s door thus seems strange in comparison with his words. It also reveals that his grief is not real as he might regret murdering Duncan, but now that it is done, he does not intend to give up his acquired position to show real repentance. This situation is mirrored by Claudius at his prayer he also regrets having murdered his brother, but not the consequences as he does not want to lose his crown and his queen either. The most significant scene concerning manliness and grief happens in Macbeth Act IV, Scene III when Macduff learns the news of the murder of his family. Malcolm tries to persuade Macduff to [d]ispute it like a man (Mac. 4.3.221) as he fears that Macduff might become overwhelmed with grief and might become effeminate and incapable of acting. Macduff, however, refuses Malcolm s assumptions as he replies: Macduff. But I must also feel it as a man. I cannot but remember such things were, That were most precious to me.... O, I could play the woman with mine eyes And braggart with my tongue! But, gentle heavens, Cut short all intermission. Front to front Bring thou this fiend of Scotland and myself; Within my sword s length set him. If he scape, Heaven forgive him too! (Macbeth 4. 3. 223-25, 232-37) Despite acknowledging his grief and therefore his feminine part compassion, sympathy, kindness, love (Howell 7) he is also masculine enough to be able to act. He shows Malcolm that he does not need to be rid of his grief, on the contrary, his grief helps him to act more resolutely. Therefore, as suggested by The Cambridge Companion to Shakespearean Tragedy, Lady Macbeth is proven wrong: masculinity is not by nature criminal, and it is not without feeling (McEachern 134). Thus, to return 8
to Hamlet s unmanly grief, not repressing his feminine side actually helps Hamlet to be more decisive and steadfast in his action. Claudius accuses Hamlet of being effeminate in his grief, and incapable of any deeds whatsoever, while comparing Hamlet to himself, as his grief did not stop him from pursuing his goals. Claudius mourning, however, is not genuine, just like Macbeth s is not when he urges the thanes to postpone their feminine anguish, so they could act like men should, and deal with the need to solve the murder of the King. However, as later demonstrated on the example of Macduff, accepting feminine sorrow does not render one incapable of carrying out the deed he has settled on which is killing Macbeth in Macduff s case but it rather helps Macduff (and also Hamlet when he chooses not to ignore the feminine part of himself) to be more resolute and focused on his goal. 1.2.3. Masculinity vs. Cowardice In Act III, Scene I, Hamlet contemplates the possible consequences of taking action that could lead to his death, or whether it would be wiser to endure injustice as The Mousetrap play is supposed to take place that night and he is not sure of the next course of action. This soliloquy seems to be a continuation of the soliloquy at the end of Act II, where Hamlet blames himself of inaction as well. He calls himself John-a-dreams (2. 2. 563) and a coward; however, he ends with the resolution to test the honesty of the Ghost s words with the play. As the Ghost ordered Hamlet not to taint his mind, Hamlet is forced not to enact the revenge unless he is certain that he is in his right and his progress is therefore slowed down. Thus in this speech he ponders the consequences of not listening to the Ghost and not waiting for the proof, but acting straightaway with the possibility of tainting his mind: 9
Hamlet. Thus conscience does make cowards of us all, And thus the native hue of resolution Is sicklied o er with the pale cast of thought, And enterprises of great pitch and moment With this regard their currents turn awry And lose the name of action. (Hamlet 3. 1. 83-88) The prince accuses himself of cowardice as his conscience does not allow him to take any action against the King before he finds out whether the Ghost is telling the truth. However, he resolves to wait as the threat of unknown consequences is looming over him. He might perceive this course of proceeding as cowardly, nonetheless, as Bamber comments on this play, it is hard to tell manly strength from mindless ambition, and restraint may be confused with weakness (26). In Act V, Scene II, Hamlet accepts the invitation to the match with Laertes even though he has a foreboding feeling that something is going to go wrong. However, he refuses to listen to this feeling as he states the following: It is but foolery, but it is such a kind of gaingiving, / as would perhaps trouble a woman (5. 2. 211-12). By explaining these thoughts away as a result of his feminine part, Hamlet is able to be more active and enact his revenge without considering the possible outcomes first. Nevertheless, heedless acting has caused him trouble before when he killed Polonius and it does not help him this time either. Suppressing his thoughts turns out to be his demise. Lady Macbeth blames Macbeth of being guilty of the same fear of consequences that Hamlet feels. She knows that he is ambitious but also that the possible consequences of unjustified action would not permit him to commit such a deed. Therefore she accuses of him of being a coward, of being unmanly and effeminate: Lady Macbeth. Art thou afeard To be the same in thine own act and valor As thou art in desire?... 10
What beast was t, then, That made you break this enterprise to me? When you durst do it, then you were a man; And, to be more than what you were, you would Be so much more the man. (Macbeth 1.7. 40-42, 48-52) Macbeth tries to assert his masculinity in response he is not guilty of being inactive, after all, since he has just won a battle. He can do everything that any man can; however, carrying out such a deed would not make him a bigger man as he says that: I dare do all that may become a man; / [w]ho dares do more is none (1. 7. 47-48), meaning that by becoming a murderer one loses one s humanity. As it later turns out, Macbeth loses his humanity and his conscience after his third murderous rampage the killing of the Macduffs. He also uses the same strategy of discrediting one s masculinity on Banquo s murderers to persuade them to action: Now, if you have a station in the file, / Not i the worst rank of manhood, say t, / And I will put that business in your bosoms (3. 1. 103-5). Macbeth s masculinity is doubted again at the banquet as he sees Banquo s ghost. He openly shows his fear of the ghost which leads Lady Macbeth to question his masculinity once again. Lady Macbeth. Are you a man? Macbeth. Ay, and a bold one, that dare look on that Which might appall the devil. (Macbeth 3. 4. 58-60) Macbeth refuses this accusation as he repeats his words from their first conversation about cowardice he says that [w]hat man dare, I dare (3. 4. 100). No man with a conscience would be able to endure the image of a dead man walking among the living people without feeling any fear, which can be seen in the Ghost scene in Hamlet as well. Macbeth recognises this problem and, instead of proceeding like Hamlet with care not to taint his mind any further, his next course of action is the murder of the Macduffs, the final deed that was necessary in order to be rid of his conscience, his 11
feminine part. With his conscience gone, his masculinity, or activity, is not questioned again until Act V, Scene VIII at the end of the play, as he has become inhuman and unfeeling. In the last act of the play, Macbeth proclaims that he has almost forgot the taste of fears (5. 5. 9) as he has supped full with horrors (5. 5. 13). Thus Macduff, who accepts his feminine part as discussed above, is able to defeat him. Macbeth s fears and conscience return as Macduff takes from him his fantasy of being invincible and therefore being free from the consequences of his terrible deeds by fulfilling one of the prophecies he has not been born of a woman. Macbeth. Accursèd be that tongue that tells me so, For it hath cowed my better part of man! (Macbeth 5. 8. 17-18) He is rendered inactive once again and only Macduff s accusation of cowardice rouses him to action one last time. Although he is killed, he dies as a human with conscience, resembling the brave warrior he once was. Hamlet accuses himself of cowardice for his lack of action coupled with abundance of thoughts on the matter. He debates whether it would be better to enact the revenge now, which would be the masculine thing to do, or whether he should wait for a proof, so that he would not have to be afraid of consequences. In the end it is Hamlet s resolve not to delay carrying out the revenge any longer and not to give in to the feminine fear of consequences that leads to his demise. Macbeth is guilty of the same fear of consequences and of thinking too much about them, hence Lady Macbeth blames him for being unmanly and thus forces him to become active and pursue fulfilment of the prophecy. Macbeth later uses the same strategy of doubting one s manliness to force them to action on Banquo s murderers. Not to have his manliness questioned again, as Lady Macbeth has done at the banquet seeing Macbeth s reaction to Banquo s ghost, 12
Macbeth commits a terrible deed of having a whole family the Macduffs murdered and thus he is rid of his conscience and his fears. However, his conscience and his fears return when he learns from Macduff that he is probably going to die. He loses his manly readiness once again, but he also regains it as a part of his last courageous deed. 1.3. Conclusion There are several scenes in Hamlet and Macbeth in which the main protagonists are accused of being effeminate on the basis of being inactive of thinking too much about the consequences of their actions, instead of doing the deeds. Firstly, it happens in the scenes when they meet supernatural beings. Even though Hamlet wants to pursue the revenge straightaway, he is stopped by the Ghost and forced to think about it first. Macbeth, however, resolves not to do anything at first, as the thought of a murder is too terrible even for a man like himself. Secondly, Hamlet is described as unmanly for grieving for his father too much and his inactivity is put into contrast with his father s proactive murderer. This is paralleled by Macbeth s insinuation that mourning men are not manly at all, as he invites them to put on manly readiness. However, as proven by Macduff, allowing oneself to feel genuine grief and thus embracing one s feminine part is actually helpful for focusing on pursuing the action. Finally, both Hamlet s and Macbeth s masculinity is brought into question when they are accused of cowardice. Hamlet blames himself of being a coward, even though he realises he has to wait to be sure that his mind will not be corrupted with a murder of an innocent person, before he can bring about his revenge. When he is finally given a chance to revenge his father, he fails to postpone it, in spite of a bad feeling of foreboding that he writes off as cowardly and feminine-like, which ultimately causes his doom. Macbeth is insulted by Lady Macbeth for acting like a coward, when he decided not to proceed with the murder, and 13
only this accusation of not being a man enough compels him to do the deed. As Macbeth realises that this cowardice is mainly caused by thinking too much about the consequences of his deeds, he has the Macduffs murdered, which in turn frees him of his conscience. At the end, however, his conscience, fears, and doubts about his masculinity return, when he finds out that he is about to die. He chooses to act despite the odds being against him and in doing so, he regains his masculinity. Therefore, as it has been demonstrated, masculinity is closely connected to carrying out deeds in both Hamlet and Macbeth, while mere thinking about acting is considered effeminate and cowardly. However, as both Hamlet and Macbeth engage in a careful consideration of their next proceedings whenever there is a need or an opportunity to execute a deed (thus demonstrating the contrast between thoughts and deeds) it is impossible to decide which of the protagonists is more passive and which of them is more ready to act. 14
2. The Supernatural in Hamlet and Macbeth Representation of supernatural beings in both Hamlet and Macbeth embodies an important aspect of the plays plots. The Elizabethans were highly superstitious and they had many myths about supernatural beings. Elizabethan ghosts usually appeared at night to talk about past injustices, to predict the future, and to prevail on the living to carry out deeds. Witchcraft was considered a treason against the King, and witches, the opposites of proper women, had a tendency towards mischief and cruelty. Neither of these supernatural beings, however, could bring about anyone s doom; they could only tempt the weak and those with corrupted minds. This urge to action and a danger of corruption of minds as coming from the Supernatural is portrayed in both Hamlet and Macbeth. The Supernatural appears two times in each of the plays: firstly, at the beginning, as the Ghost compels Hamlet to revenge his father s death, and as witches initiate the murderous proceedings of Macbeth. Secondly, the Ghost re-enters to remind Hamlet of the right course of his task, and Macbeth comes to the Weird Sisters for an affirmation of a successful outcome of his future course of action. Thus it establishes a direct connection between the Supernatural and the contrast between thinking and action. 2.1. Early Modern Beliefs about the Supernatural As Cumberland Clark points out, Elizabethans were a generation particularly given to mysticism (13) and despite efforts of such sceptics as Reginald Scot, the author of The Discoverie of Witchcraft, belief in the Supernatural was still considerably alive. Many superstitions that derived from the fear of the Supernatural determined the course of everyday life of Elizabethans. In spite of this, at least in Shakespeare s plays people were able to retain their own free will and only the weak were susceptible to the 15
Supernatural: Ghosts and witches can only suggest, tempt, persuade, and appeal; they cannot command, nor compel (Clark 74). In order to enter into people s minds, the Supernatural had to be invited. 2.1.1. Ghosts As J. Dover Wilson explains, ghosts in the Elizabethan era might have been perceived in three different ways: 1) from the point of view of a Catholic, 2) from the perspective of a Protestant, and 3) as a follower of Reginald Scot (61-63) 1. As Catholics believed in Purgatory, they had no difficulty in accepting that ghosts were the souls of the departed that came back among the living for various reasons. Protestants, however, did not recognise this concept and, therefore, even though they did not deny the existence of ghosts, they did not believe that ghosts would be the souls of the dead. Rather, they identified ghosts as devils that were trying to tempt weak people to sin. This presented a difficulty in interpreting [ghosts ] origins and motives (O Callaghan 85), which can be seen in Hamlet, whose eponymous protagonist doubts the ghost s sincerity (see part 2.2.1. below). Ghosts tended to appear at night, usually in troubled times (O Callaghan 81). Their main aim was to denounce injustices, urge the living to act, and utter prophecies (O Callaghan 81). In literature, they were often employed to bring the past into the present (O Callaghan 83) as they had the knowledge of things in the past. These ghosts could not have brought about a real change of matters by themselves, however, they could have altered how issues in the present were perceived. This, too, happens in Hamlet as Hamlet might have sensed that there could have been something wrong with 1 Reginald Scot proclaims in his Discoverie of Witchcraft that apparitions are either the illusion of melancholic minds or flat knavery on the part of some rogue (Wilson 64). This point of view would be most likely to blame Hamlet s melancholy for seeing his father s ghost (Wilson 64). 16
Claudius, but did not, at the beginning, imagine him to be a murderer until he heard his father s ghost s accusation. 2.1.2. Witches King James I of England took a personal interest in the problem of witchcraft, having published a treatise on the subject entitled Daemonology (1597) that established witchcraft as a treason against the King. 2 By the time when Macbeth was written, witchcraft had been decidedly a prominent and controversial topic in London (Carroll, Part Two 306). Since the tragedy of Macbeth contains several allusions to James I, such as his ancestry (James I was believed to be descended from Banquo) and touching for scrofula, and prenuptial chastity that he also took an interest in (Muir livlv), Daemonology arguably served as one of Shakespeare s sources for his portrayal of the witches. Among other significant texts dealing with witchcraft that influenced the view of the period was Reginald Scot s The Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584) that denied the existence of witches, and the Malleus Maleficarum (1484), an infamous book on witchhunting written by two Dominican inquisitors Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger (Garber, Macbeth 697). Witches represented a counterpart to an ideal woman chaste, silent, and obedient (Carroll, Introduction 19). They were often described as old and ugly hags with bodies that were hard and dry (Purkiss 127), thus showing witches refusal of their maternal roles as the body of a mother should be soft and nourishing. Since women s subordination was established through the belief that their only purpose was to 2 James I formulated a doctrine of divine right that established that there was a close connection between a monarch and a God that was necessary to create structures of political empowerment (Fischlin 4). Witchcraft that was connected to the Devil thus stood directly against the King and constituted a threat to his power (Fischlin 4). 17
procreate (Aughterson 52), the existence of witches threatened to overthrow the patriarchal society with chaos through their self-assured authority (Chamberlain 80). They were said to possess all sorts of powers, they could control the elements, and were disposed towards mischief and cruelty (Clark 26). Witches also possessed the power to conjure images in people s minds (Fischlin 4); however, they could not have forced them to do anything as they could only tempt those who were already susceptible to such temptations (Clark 94). Thus Macbeth, for instance, must have already thought about murdering King Duncan in order to gain the crown, with the Weird Sisters only pronouncing his wishes aloud. 2.2. Ghosts and Witches as Initiators of Action The Supernatural plays a crucial role in both Hamlet and Macbeth as, in both plays, it gives a direction to the course of action. In Hamlet, it is represented by Hamlet s father s ghost who reveals to Hamlet the details of his murder and demands that Hamlet revenge him. However, Hamlet does not comply with his order immediately, as he first needs to make sure that the Ghost is not actually the Devil. In Macbeth, the Supernatural is chiefly embodied by witches or, rather, the Weird Sisters, as Shakespeare calls them that prophesy that Macbeth shall become the King. (Although the play does contain several appearances of a ghost as well, its role is different from the one of the ghost of Hamlet s father and is not pertinent to the present discussion). Even though Macbeth is not certain whether he should believe the Weird Sisters or not and does not act on the prophecy right away, he is eventually persuaded by Lady Macbeth, who is symbolically portrayed as a witch herself, to pursue the necessary course of action. The Supernatural reappears later in both Hamlet and Macbeth to reinforce the ideas that drive both Hamlet and Macbeth to action. While in Hamlet, the 18
Ghost re-enters to remind Hamlet to remember him and not to let corruption into his mind in Act III, Scene IV, in Macbeth it is Macbeth himself who goes to the Weird Sisters in Act IV, Scene I to demand assurance regarding consequences of his deeds. 2.2.1. The Supernatural Urging the Living to Action Hamlet meets the Ghost of his father for the first time in Act I, Scene V to learn from him the truth of his late father s death. The Ghost bounds young Hamlet to revenge the late King s foul and most unnatural murder (1. 5. 25), appealing to the prince s filial duty. The Ghost also gives Hamlet several instructions as to how to accomplish the deed, namely not to taint his mind, not to act directly against his mother, and not to forget him (the Ghost): Ghost. But howsomever thou pursuest this act, Taint not thy mind nor let thy soul contrive Against thy mother aught. Leave her to heaven, And to those thorns that in her bosom lodge To prick and sting her. Fare thee well at once: The glow-worm shows the matin to be near And gins to pale his uneffectual fire. Adieu, adieu, adieu. Remember me. (Hamlet 1. 5. 84-91) The first of these demands, taint not thy mind, bears a great significance: it is necessary for Hamlet not to taint his mind as that might render him vulnerable to temptation by the Devil. As Cumberland Clark explains, the Supernatural could only connect with ideas latent in the human mind and to strengthen and influence them until they ripened into deeds that suited them (75). Therefore, Hamlet listened to the narration of his father s murder as he already thought about his father s death more than often, but neither the Ghost nor the Devil could make him commit any sin, unless he opens his mind to accursed thoughts that lead to damnation. Hamlet hereafter follows the Ghost s advice and makes sure that the Ghost is not the Devil before he enacts his revenge: 19
Hamlet. The spirit that I have seen May be a devil, and the devil hath power T assume a pleasing shape, yea, and perhaps, Out of my weakness and my melancholy, As he is very potent with such spirits, Abuses me to damn me (Hamlet 2. 2. 594-99) As the play strongly suggests that Hamlet is a Protestant (Wilson 68), he is bound to have doubts about the Ghost s nature, since the Catholic belief in purgatory was not shared or permitted by the new Protestant sects (Garber, Hamlet 485). Stephen Greenblatt argues that it could be portrayed in drama, but only as a sly jest, confidence trick, a mistake, not as a frightening reality (236) unless playwrights wanted to cause themselves serious trouble. The problem seems to be that while it is possible that a spirit from Purgatory would call for remembrance, it is utterly incompatible with a Senecan call for vengeance (Greenblatt 237) that the Ghost ultimately makes and that Hamlet understands to be a call for murder. Therefore, it is important to determine whether the Ghost is an honest one or not. For that purpose, Hamlet has the actors perform a The Mousetrap play containing the precise account of his father s murder in front of Claudius. Should Claudius react strangely and betray his guilt, Hamlet will know that the spectre can be trusted: I ll take the ghost s word for a / thousand pound (3. 2. 280-81). From that moment on he can pursue the revenge without being afraid of corrupting his mind. Macbeth meets the Weird Sisters in Act I, Scene III. They greet him with prediction of greatness that seems to take Macbeth aback. Later on, in one of his asides, Macbeth contemplates whether he should trust the Weird Sisters or not, as Banquo has already warned him that their prophecy might do him more harm than good: Macbeth. This supernatural soliciting Cannot be ill, cannot be good. If ill, 20
Why hath it given me earnest of success Commencing in a truth? I am Thane of Cawdor. If good, why do I yield to that suggestion Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair And make my seated heart knock at my ribs, Against the use of nature? Present fears Are less than horrible imaginings. My thought, whose murder yet is but fantastical, Shakes so my single state of man That function is smothered in surmise, And nothing is but what is not. (Macbeth 1. 3. 131-43) This speech shows that Macbeth had already thought of attaining the crown through murder as the Weird Sisters did not mention anything even remotely resembling such a crime. They also cannot force him to commit such a deed, as earlier in the scene, they admit that there are limits to their power when they talk about causing trouble to the sailor whose wife insulted one of them: Though his bark cannot be lost, / Yet it shall be tempest-tossed (1. 3. 24-25). The Weird Sisters could only strengthen thoughts that were already in his mind. Macbeth does not even decide to pursue these thoughts straightaway: instead, he resolves to wait for his fate to accomplish his goal in his stead. Nevertheless, Macbeth is forced into action when Lady Macbeth herself becomes a metaphorical witch. She invokes spirits, the masters of the Weird Sisters, to unsex her and fill her with cruelty. By doing this, she identifies herself with the ambiguous gender of witches (Chamberlain 80) they cannot be females, since they do not conform to the ideal of a proper woman who is silent and obedient, but they are not males either. Lady Macbeth also refuses her maternal role when she invites the spirits to take [her] milk for gall (1. 6. 44): 21
Lady Macbeth. Come, you spirits That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here And fill me from the crown to the toe top-full Of direst cruelty! Make thick my blood; Stop up th access and passage to remorse, That no compunctious visitings of nature Shake my fell purpose, nor keep peace between The effect and it! Come to my woman s breasts And take my milk for gall, you murdering ministers, Wherever in your sightless substances You wait on nature s mischief! (Macbeth 1. 6. 36-46) By doubting Macbeth s masculinity (see Chapter 1.2.3.) Lady Macbeth lures Macbeth to the temptation of the royal crown which eventually leads him to commit a sinful deed: for the first time he kills someone outside of a battlefield, as he murders an unarmed, innocent man that was a guest under his protection. Upon their first meeting, the Ghost urges Hamlet to revenge his late father s death, while demanding that Hamlet does so only on certain conditions, not opening his mind up to corruption being one of them, so that he cannot be seduced by the Devil. Thus before enacting the revenge Hamlet has to make sure that he can trust the Ghost, as there is a possibility that the Ghost was actually from Hell himself. In contrast, when Macbeth meets the Weird Sisters and hears their prophecy, he decides not to act on it at first, even though he has already thought about attaining the crown. However, Lady Macbeth, a metaphorical witch herself, succeeds in compelling him to do the deed and thus contributes to poisoning of Macbeth s mind. 2.2.2. Beware the Corruption of Your Mind In Act III, Scene IV of Hamlet, the Ghost re-enters the scene. He does this only after Hamlet directly disobeys the Ghost s command and turns against his mother, allowing words like daggers enter in [her] ears (3. 4. 95). In doing so, he breaks his promise to remember the Ghost: 22
Ghost. Do not forget. This visitation Is but to whet thy almost blunted purpose. But look, amazement on thy mother sits. O step between her and her fighting soul. Conceit in weakest bodies strongest works. Speak to her, Hamlet. (Hamlet 3. 4. 110-15) The Ghost reminds Hamlet to heed at least his last advice: not to taint his mind. However, those words mean that Hamlet should carefully choose his thoughts, not that he should not think at all and act heedlessly (as he has just proven by killing Polonius). The Ghost s words, to whet thy almost blunted purpose, do not mean that he accuses him of having done too little, as they are commonly interpreted, but rather of having done far too much (Grebanier 233) killing Polonius was unnecessary and diverted Hamlet from his straight path to the revenge. Should he do that again, he would have certainly rendered his mind susceptible to the Devil; the only thing that prevented this after Polonius murder was that he acted heedlessly and did not think at all. In Macbeth, the Weird Sisters do not return to Macbeth to entice him to perpetrate another murder: instead, it is Macbeth that seeks them in Act IV, Scene I. He charges the Weird Sisters to rid him of his fear of the consequences that still haunts him, even though he has already murdered Banquo to ensure his place on the throne. They answer him in prophecies which Macbeth misunderstands as a promise that he is invincible. As a result, he decides not to waste any more time hesitating and immediately springs to action: Macbeth. Time, thou anticipat st my dread exploits. The flighty purpose never is o ertook Unless the deed go with it. From this moment The very firstlings of my heart shall be The firstlings of my hand. (Macbeth 4. 1. 144-48) 23
Macbeth s determination to be bloody, bold, and resolute (4. 1. 79) lasts as long as he believes in his interpretation of the Weird Sisters prophecies that extinguished his fear of consequences and simultaneously completed the poisoning of his mind. Under this encouragement, Macbeth has the Macduff s family murdered and confidently faces the oncoming battle, having no one on his side. Then in Act V, Scene VIII Macbeth realises the true meaning of the prophecies when he hears Macduff s words that Macduff was from his mother s womb / Untimely ripped (5. 8. 15-16), meaning that Macduff was not born of a woman and thus he is the one to defeat Macbeth. At that moment Macbeth hesitates again and refuses to maintain his course of action (see Chapter 1.2.3.). He accuses the Weird Sisters of telling him double truths and himself of believing them: Macbeth. Accursèd be that tongue that tells me so, For it hath cowed my better part of man! And be these juggling fiends no more believed That palter with us in a double sense, That keep the word of promise to our ear And break it to our hope. I ll not fight with thee. (Macbeth 5. 8. 17-22) In the end, Macbeth realises that he should not have trusted the Weird Sisters; however, he never blames them for making him kill King Duncan as he understands that it was his and Lady Macbeth s fault of having minds too susceptible to corruption. He thought about his murderous deeds before the beginning of the play, the Weird Sisters only strengthened the ideas already planted in his mind; even then, Macbeth still retained his own free will and he had the final say on committing the murders. Hamlet sees the Ghost again after committing the rash deed of killing Polonius as the Ghost reminds him the importance of heeding his advice and not straying from the straight path to the revenge. This act could have tainted Hamlet s mind and made him vulnerable to the Devil; the only thing that saved him was the rashness of the deed and 24
the lack of thoughts. Macbeth, on the other hand, seeks out the Weird Sisters himself and demands answers that would make him feel secure in his position. Having acquired new prophecies that he misunderstands as the assurance that he wanted, Macbeth completes the corruption of his mind by having the Macduffs murdered. He realises his mistake at the end, however, he only blames the Weird Sisters for lying to him, not for forcing him to action, as he know that both the murderous deeds and the poisoning of his mind were his choices made out of free will. 2.3. Conclusion The Supernatural plays a crucial role in both Hamlet and Macbeth. While neither the Ghost, nor the Weird Sisters can force the main characters to any deed, they can strengthen the ideas in the minds of the ones susceptible to temptation, which eventually leads the characters to commit these deeds out of their own will. This aspect is depicted both times the Supernatural beings appear in the plays. When the Ghost appears for the first time in front of Hamlet, he urges the prince to revenge his late father s death. As he also demands that Hamlet does not taint his mind with accursed thoughts, Hamlet s pursuit of the revenge is slowed down, since Hamlet needs to take careful measures to be certain that he can trust the Ghost who could be the Devil in disguise such as putting on the play before he can proceed with the revenge. Nonetheless, when Hamlet gains the affirmation of Claudius guilt, he stops thinking about his actions and heedlessly kills Polonius and turns against his mother, thus forgetting the Ghost s demands regarding the revenge. Due to this train of events, the Ghost reappears and reminds Hamlet of the importance of not corrupting his mind, which Hamlet avoided only due to the rashness of his deed. Macbeth s mind, on the other hand, was already liable to temptation when he met the Weird Sisters and heard their prophecy, as he must 25
have already thought about usurping the crown through murder. However, he does not succumb to the allure of kingship right away, at least not until Lady Macbeth, who is potentially a witch as well, doubts his masculinity, since Macbeth seems to be merely thinking about the deed. Later on, Macbeth goes to the Weird Sisters for new prophecies, which results in Macbeth s decision to be bold and resolute. He slightly hesitates about this decision only at the end when he realises that the Weird Sisters told him double truths and that he is about to die; nevertheless, he remains courageous to the end. To conclude, in both of the discussed plays the Supernatural beings fulfil their roles of urging the mortals to action through offering truths and double truths. Both Hamlet and Macbeth consider the strange revelations first before they resolve to pursue their goals; while Hamlet acts heedlessly, Macbeth s deeds are carefully thought-out, thus demonstrating the apparent contrast between thoughts and deeds portrayed in both Hamlet and Macbeth. 26
3. Murderous Thoughts and Deeds in Hamlet and Macbeth Portrayal of murderous thoughts and deeds constitutes an important part of the plots of the plays under discussion. Murder itself represented a fascinating issue in the early modern England and it was not unusual to see it depicted in literature and drama of the period. Murders in Hamlet and Macbeth embody an interesting aspect of the contrast between thoughts and deeds. While the regicides in both of the plays are arguably very well thought-out and enacted (while, at the same time, corrupting the minds of the murderers), the murders carried out by Hamlet are done recklessly and without thinking (while preserving his mind untainted). Macbeth, on the other hand, begins with murders that are carefully planned; however, since he is plagued by his guilty conscience and black thoughts, he eventually resolves not to think about his actions and thus he silences his mind. 3.1. Murder as a Subject of Fascination Murder was a highly compelling topic for the early modern period to quote Martin Wiggins, the Elizabethans and Jacobeans were fascinated by murder itself (2). As he explains, it was slowly overcoming treason as the most heinous of crimes (ibid.), because people were becoming more aware of it with the growth of cities. Murder also gained its reflection in literature and in drama, which showed the human experience of murder: the need for secrecy, the obsessive mistrust, and later the social and psychological forces which could make a man a homicide. Again the assassin s motives were of central importance (ibid.). According to The Cambridge Companion to Shakespearean Tragedy, the appropriate setting for murder seemed to be night as it was the time of rest and peace violated and as a symptom of chaos (19). Deeds which were committed during night 27
tended to generate the tragic action due to being untimely or mistimed, either rash or cunningly swift (19). Both Hamlet and Macbeth make use of this appropriate setting for the dark deeds while Hamlet assumes that it is the right time for revenge, Lady Macbeth presumes there is no better time than night for a murder (Langbaum 58). 3.2. Murders in Hamlet and Macbeth Committing murders and thinking about them represents an important aspect of the discussed plays. It instigates the major plot points and also concludes the plot. This chapter thus focuses on various forms of murderous acts in the two plays, namely 1) on regicides, and 2) on the other murderous rampages happening in the plays. While the regicides are carefully planned, it is not so with the other murders: when committed by Macbeth, they are deliberated upon and thought upon; when committed by Hamlet, whose main preoccupation is the revenge upon the King, they are done heedlessly, usually when Hamlet decides to be resolute thus conveying the contrast between thoughts and deeds. 3.2.1. Regicides During Act I, Scene V of Hamlet, the Ghost of Hamlet s father, the previous King of Denmark, reveals that he has been viciously murdered by his own brother Claudius, thus substantiating Hamlet and other characters faint feeling that something is wrong with Denmark, a feeling of deterioration ( Something is rotten in the state of Denmark 1. 4. 90), and of a gloomy foreboding: Horatio. In the most high and palmy state of Rome, A little ere the mightiest Julius fell, The graves stood tenantless and the sheeted dead Did squeak and gibber in the Roman streets; As stars with trains of fire and dews of blood, Disasters in the sun; and the moist star 28