Death of Freemasonry 0 The Rhetoric and Death of U.S. Freemasonry In this essay I argue that the rhetorical response of U.S. Freemasons to recent, positive publicity has been to divest the fraternity of mystery in favor of transparency. The result, I suggest, is an abandonment of centuries of Masonic philosophy in favor of stressing the Order's social function and charity work. To this end I explain what Freemasonry is by describing its organizational structure, allegorical ritual, and basic teachings. Then, I detail the rhetorical practice internal to the Craft and explain how the fraternity's strange symbolism is thought to encourage spiritual insight. Finally, I show how a number of recent publicity campaigns and Masonic publications intended for a wider audience downplay or dismiss the occult rhetoric of Masonry's past. I conclude by arguing the decline of U.S. Freemasonry should be read a symptom of changing modes of publicity and civic engagement. KEY WORKS: civic engagement, Freemasonry, occultism, republicanism, symbolism
Death of Freemasonry 1 The Rhetoric and Death of U.S. Freemasonry "These two pillars are the most duplicated architectural structures in history. Replicas exist all over the world.... [They] are exact replicas of the two pillars that stood at the head of Solomon's Temple." Langdon pointed to the pillar on the left. "That's called Boaz--or the Mason's Pillar. The other is called Jachin--or the Apprentice Pillar." He paused. "In fact, virtually every Masonic temple in the world has two pillars like these." --Robert Landon in The Da Vinci Code 1 At the conclusion of Dan Brown's wildly successful novel, The Da Vinci Code (2003), Professor Robert Langdon and his younger companion Sophie Neveu arrive at the famous Rosslyn Chapel in Edinbrugh, Scotland on their quest for the Holy Grail. Brown's use of Masonic symbolism in the novel is frequently inaccurate, such as in Langdon and Sophie's discussion of Boaz and Jachin while standing in the sanctuary (see fig. 1). Although it remains the oldest and most well known occult organization in the world, contemplative or "speculative" Freemasonry--that is, a fraternity that is not actually made up of "operative" masons--most likely originated in the early eighteenth century in England. 2 The allegorical and symbolic teachings of the fraternity orbit the stories surrounding the building of King Solomon's temple and are drawn from what is thought to be the practice of masonic guilds in the Middle Ages, however, the suggestion that the markings and architecture of Rosslyn Chapel are directly related to contemporary Freemasonry is misleading. Speculative Freemasonry has retroactively claimed the symbolism of Rosslyn, 3 but, just like the
Death of Freemasonry 2 Fig. 1. A collection of Masonic symbols; Boaz and Jachin are numbered "1."
Death of Freemasonry 3 pyramid and the all Seeing Eye on the back of the U.S. dollar bill, Rosslyn's architectural symbolism existed long before the Order was established. 4 Owing to the centrality of its strange symbolism and secrecy (see fig. 2), Freemasonry has often been the topic of many misleading associations and cultural fantasies that have made the fraternity and its teachings an interesting topic for conspiracy theorists, mystery novel writers, and Hollywood filmmakers. 5 Historically, most of the fantasies about Masonry have been negative and hostile, frequently involving the fraternity's allegiance to Satan or various projects to establish a "New World Order." Although there are only a few references to Freemasonry The Da Vinci Code, these references are largely positive, however, and because the book has been so widely read (at the time of this writing, there are over 65 million copies in print), it has helped to generate a less hostile, worldwide interest in the fraternity, spawning a flood of "knock-off" novels, films, and television documentaries related to the Masons. 6 In connection with the 2006 release of the film version of The Da Vinci Code--which curiously only has one, very brief mention of Masonry--the ABC show Good Morning America broadcast live from the Scottish Rite Temple in Washington D.C. 7 Perhaps because Masonry seemed to pique the interest of so many, Brown has announced that his sequel to The Da Vinci Code, titled The Solomon Key, concerns early U.S. Freemasons, many of whom were among the "founding fathers" of the United States of America, including Benjamin Franklin and George Washington. The recent media attention of the past few years has been a mixed blessing for U.S. Freemasons. On the one hand, although the renewed exposure in the mass media is mostly positive, this publicity has nevertheless resurfaced many of the myths and conspiratorial fantasies that have plagued the fraternity since its inception. 8 On the other hand, however, media exposure is seen as an opportunity to "revive"
Death of Freemasonry 4 Freemasonry and increase its membership, which has declined more than fifty percent in the latter half of the twentieth century. 9 Seizing this opportunity, a number of Masonic leaders have been appearing on television and publishing essays and books to ensure that the popular media spin remains positive. In keeping with the rhetorical response of Masons to anti-masonic movements for hundreds of years, these newer efforts to popularize Freemasonry remain silent about the Ancient Mysteries and occult traditions central to the philosophical teachings of its past. In this essay I argue that the recent rhetorical response of Masons to public scrutiny has been to deemphasize, and sometimes disown, the fundamentally Platonic function of Masonic symbolism and ritual in favor of stressing the social and charitable missions of the fraternity. Combined with technological and cultural changes that have been documented as causes for the decline of participation in social and civic groups (e.g., the arrival and dominance of television, interactive video gaming, and the Internet as stationary, in-home mediums of stranger socialibility), 10 the rhetorical strategy of divesting Freemasonry of its deeply imaginative and symbolic rites of contemplation erodes the "social capital" of Masonic membership, paradoxically further contributing to the fraternity's decline. 11 At least in part, what is appealing about Freemasonry to the Entering Apprentice Mason and non-mason alike is precisely the mystery that surrounds its teachings, the mystery that Dan Brown hijacks to sell millions of his best-selling novels. After describing the rhetorical function of Masonic mystery, I conclude by arguing that the moves to explain it away in order to promote the fraternity as a charitable social club with a colorful occult past are not only detrimental to the present occult center of the Craft, but also an index of the way shifts in rhetorics of secrecy to transparency can be read as symptoms of the transformation of civic engagement in the United States.
Death of Freemasonry 5 To this end, this essay begins by describing Freemasonry, outlining a number of its divisions and explaining the conditions of membership. Second, I demonstrate how the complex symbolism and allegories of Masonry have long been taught as an occult rhetoric designed to encourage a "brother" to spiritual apprehensions beyond the realm of human representation. This occult rhetoric to a great degree centers on the fraternity's central allegory, the legend of Hirim Abif and the building of King Solomon's Temple. Third, I trace the relationship between the fraternity's response to anti-masonic attacks in the nineteenth century and the more positive media exposure of recent years. Finally, conclude by expanding the discussion to civic engagement and changing modes of publicity today. What is Freemasonry? Freemasonry is a beautiful and profound system of morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols. The design of the Masonic Institution is to make its members wiser, better, and consequently happier. This is accomplished by means of a series of moral instructions taught according to ancient usage, by types, symbols, allegorical figures, and lectures. The forms and ceremonies of this institution have come down through a succession of ages and are all designed to impress upon the mind significant and solemn truths. --"Lecture in Preparation Room" to an Entering Apprentice candidate 12 Upon entering a Masonic lodge for the first time, every candidate that petitions the fraternity is told to strip (excepting undergarments) and to remove his shoes. He is blindfolded or "hoodwinked" and dressed in a symbolic manner: he is told to put on some loose-fitting rags and to place a slipper on one foot; the left leg and breast are
Death of Freemasonry 6 exposed, and a noose or "cable-tow" is placed around his neck. In this or a similar "destitute" condition he represents a poor "widow's son" trapped in the darkness of ignorance. Once the lodge door is ceremonially opened to him, each candidate will enter in pursuit of "more light," participating in a lengthy, complicated, highly symbolic (and initially confusing) ritual that is at least 250 years old. Although space and the author's respect for the Craft prevent any thorough account of the rituals, most of them consist of "circumambulating" the lodge and a lot of kneeling, praying, and repeating of strange words and phrases (much of the ritual--and the mundane business in Masonic lodges--has a close resemblance to Parliamentary procedure). The rituals draw heavily from passages and stories of the Old Testament of the King James bible, which culminate in an extended allegory, the "Hiramic Legend," which is based on two short passages from the bible (Kings 7: 13-14; 2 Chronicles 2:13-14). Masons stress the allegorical and symbolic significance of the legend, as few believe the story is true: Hiram Abif, a "widow's son" and the architect of King Solomon's temple, is a Master Mason possessing many secrets of his craft (basically, mathematical formulas, building techniques, and passwords needed to receive payment for labor). Ancient Masons worked on a degreed, apprentice system, and on each level a student mason would learn more about their trade. The legend goes that Hiram Abif was the most wise and knowledgeable of Masons, and that that three Fellows of the Craft demanded all his secrets from him or they would kill him. Abif elects to keep the secrets he had promised to protect and is killed. The murderers bury the slain architect and attempt to escape. The legend concludes when the killers are caught and punished, and a monument is erected to honor Hiram Abif's moral character. While receiving the degrees of Freemasonry, the entered apprentice
Death of Freemasonry 7 represents a poor "widow's son" like Hiram Abif, but is only told this allegory directly in the third and final degree. 13 There are three basic ceremonies in which various parts or aspects of this legend are introduced and elaborated, each of which are symbolic of degrees: the Entering Apprentice Degree (1 ), the Fellowcraft Degree (2 ), and the Master Mason degree (3 ). At the conclusion of each ceremony, the candidate kneels before "The Book of the Law" (a Bible in the West, but theoretically this can be any holy book that is dominant in a region) and is asked to take an oath not to reveal the secrets of Freemasonry under penalty of gruesome consequences that get worse with each degree. Of course, the obligations and the consequences for violating them are symbolic: although there are a few historical exceptions, today no one will die or be disemboweled if he reveals the "secrets" of Freemasonry--but he may get kicked out. 14 After the performance of each degree, the candidate works with a "coach" to memorize a catechism based on the performance, including a series of questions and answers that are designed to encourage reflection on the meaning of Masonic symbolism. Nothing of these catechisms is written down, and their contents and meaning can only be discussed in speech among Masons of the same degree. Contrary to what is often reported in the popular press (e.g., in Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code), there are only three degrees in Masonry proper, and once one has received the degree of Master Mason, he can go no "higher" in the fraternity. Arturo de Hoyos and S. Brent Morris explain: To say that someone is a Mason means that he has passed through the Degrees of Blue Lodge or Ancient Craft Masonry, under the authority of a Grand Lodge. Grand Lodges normally operate exclusively within a geographic jurisdiction, usually a state. Grand Lodges attend to the
Death of Freemasonry 8 administrative affairs... and charter local lodges, which 'make Masons' by conferring the three degrees.... Grand Lodges exercise the executive administrative power to determine which organizations may be considered "Masonic" in their jurisdiction, and they reserve the right to prohibit their members from joining any organization which [sic] requires Masonic membership. All other Masonic organizations are said to be "appendant" to a Grand Lodge. 15 As Freemasonry evolved since the 1700s, a number of "appendant bodies" have developed that significantly complicate the Masonic organizational structure, leading to confusion about degrees both inside and outside the fraternity. Some appendant bodies are not recognized by all the Grand Lodges of the world, but there are a number that are. De Hoyos and Morris explain that the largest and most universally recognized by the Grand Lodges in the U.S. is the Scottish Rite, a complex system that expands Masonic ritual by 29 degrees to the 32. There is a 33, however, it is typically only conferred by the governing "Supreme Council" of the Scottish Rite to longstanding Masons with an outstanding, lifetime record of service to Masonry or humanity. Nevertheless, Scottish Rite Masonry is often confused with the Blue Lodge: if a given Mason is said to be of the 33, he is also a Mason of the Blue Lodge, but a Master Mason is not necessarily a 33 (and most likely is not, since only one to two percent of 32 Masons are currently recognized with the honorary 33 ). Like the degrees in the Blue Lodge, the Scottish Rite degrees are represented by rituals that are performed for initiates. The principle difference, however, is that after the degrees were re-written by Albert Pike in the nineteenth century, a majority of them were transformed into less-parliamentary-style "plays," which are presented in a theatre (hence, many older Scottish Rite temples have or are theatres). Other famous
Death of Freemasonry 9 Masonic bodies and systems include: The York Rite, the higher degrees of which require a belief in the divinity of Jesus; the Order of the Eastern Star, which is open to and largely administered by women; and the Ancient Arabic Order Nobles of the Mystic Shrine, or the "Shriners," most known for their charity work with children, which explains why they are often remembered for their fez hats, public clowning, and those teensy go-carts that they drive around in at local parades to help promote their charity work. Masons claim that only men of sound mind, good health, moral conviction, and excellent reputation are eligible for membership, and these qualities are assessed by an "investigation" committee that spends weeks--sometimes months--discussing an individual's character with his colleagues, friends, and family. Masons must also profess a belief in deity, although they are not required to detail or elaborate their particular beliefs about "God." Once the investigation committee is satisfied of the moral character and spiritual faith of a petitioner, they offer a recommendation to the lodge members to accept or reject the petition. Then, the members of a lodge vote by secret ballot to allow a man "receive the degrees" and join their lodge. This is done by having each member place either a single white ("yes") or black ("no") marble or die into a covered wooden box. If there are more than one black marble cast during a balloting, that candidate is "black balled" and cannot receive the degrees. To date, Freemasons are predominately white, and in the United States the issue of minority membership remains quite controversial among them. Masonry developed in this country concurrently with the union, and consequently, its history has a segregated, colonial past that is reflected in the establishment of Prince Hall Masonry, an African American fraternity that dates back to the American revolution. Prince Hall, the "Father of Black Masonry" in the United States, was granted a charter for a lodge by
Death of Freemasonry 10 the Grand Lodge of England in 1787. In the eighteenth century, and even shortly after the War of Independence, the Grand Lodge of England emerged (after many squabbles with others) as the supreme authority of Freemasonry and approved charters for Grand Lodges in other parts of the world, who would then oversee local lodges in their geographical territory. Since the North American colonies were not yet united as an autonomous sovereign, states began establishing their own Grand Lodges (and sometimes without approval from the Brits). 16 Consequently, some Grand Lodges recognize Prince Hall Masonry (e.g., California) and allow any man to petition a lodge for membership--at least in theory--while others at present do not (e.g., Louisiana). The states of the failed confederacy remain those whose members seem the most reluctant to recognize Prince Hall Masonry, although this situation continues to change rapidly as older, more bigoted generations of Masons pass away. 17 The politics of membership in a Masonic body also concerns religion, although this politics is largely a consequence of its long association with popular democracy. It is sometimes erroneously reported, for example, that Masonry is a "religion," or that Masonry discriminates against Catholics and Jews, or that it is part of a conspiracy to take over governments--all of which Masons deny. The fraternity was and remains, however, a strong proponent of republicanism and democracy, and maintains a principled commitment to the separation of church and state, which drew fire from the Roman Catholic church. Margaret C. Jacob explains that in 1738 the Papacy condemned [F]reemasonry, partly in response to the popularity of the lodge in Rome, and Catholic apologists who promulgated the Papal Bull explicated its logic in detail. At the top of their list of [M]asonic offenses was republicanism. The ingenuity of the English nation, they explained, has revived the purity of [F]reemasonry,
Death of Freemasonry 11 and this "society... imitates an aspect of the government of Republics. Its leaders are chosen, or dismissed, at its will."... Catholic opponents of the fraternity fixated on its custom of holding elections. 18 It is probable that from this hundred-years-old antipathy in Europe comes the oft-told observation that Catholics "hate" Masons and vice-versa. There is ample, extant writings by Masons to demonstrate a decidedly "anti-catholic" attitude in the United States up until at least the 1930s. 19 It is also true that Masonry adheres to a characteristically Protestant understanding of biblical exegesis and the ability humans to intuit the spiritual and divine without an intercessor, which obviously creates some tension with the Holy See. Nevertheless, contemporary Masonry is not hostile to Catholics, as a number are members of the fraternity in the United States. It is not clear among ecclesiastical scholars, however, whether the Vatican presently forbids membership. 20 It is frequently said by Masons that the strength of its brotherhood is partially derived from a self-imposed censorship: the two topics that are presumably banned from discussion in a Masonic lodge are those also banned from many family dinner tables: politics and religion. The supposed ban on these topics in the lodge, however, only reflects a very narrow construal of the terms: one is not to discuss party politics in a lodge, nor is he to discuss the merits or problems with specific, organized religion, and this is because brethren from across the political and religious spectrum are welcomed. Politics more broadly conceived as the relationship of individuals to the state and state power, and religion more broadly conceived as any discourse about deity, however, implicates Masonry as one of the most famous theo-political organizations in the country. Politically and religiously, one of the rationales for secrecy was ensure the a lodge was a forum where one speak freely about matters of
Death of Freemasonry 12 philosophy, science, politics, and religion, without fear of persecution from the church or the state; the Masonic lodge was, in other words, a product of civil society and the Enlightenment. 21 Moreover, the close, trusting bonds between men promoted by Masonry "played an important role in building the camaraderie necessary for the survival of the [early American] army--and thus the American Republic," argues Steven C. Bullock. 22 Masonic fraternities are linked to American revolutionary activities (e.g., the Boston Tea Party), 23 and lodges were places where the merits and virtues of constitutional societies were discussed and debated. 24 Unlike the protections on free speech that we have today, as late as the early twentieth century the clandestine character of the Masonry helped to protect and promote the political and religious ideas of revolutionaries in Europe and in the United States that had yet to find widespread support. 25 As republicanism was eventually--and violently--instituted in the United States, the stress on the clandestine nature of the fraternity's governance and teachings has gradually weakened. The characteristically tight-lipped grandfather or uncle who refused to say anything about Masonry to family members and friends is partly a consequence of revolutionary ferment, then, but is also simply a misunderstanding about what Masons are allowed to say about themselves to non-masons, which has changed over time. 26 In fact, most of the so-called secrets of the Craft are well known and widely published, such as its ceremonies and the over-loaded significations of many of its symbols. The actual secrets of the Craft concern certain parts and aspects of the ceremonies, and a number of secret "words" (such as the "Master Mason's word"), passwords, and handshakes. 27 These secrets, however, are also not difficult to find in a number of books and by a simple Google search of the Internet. Today, there
Death of Freemasonry 13 Fig. 2. The square and compasses of Freemasonry are two primary reasons Masons do not talk about these not-so-secret secrets: first, as S. Brent Morris explains, the value of secrets to Masons is "as symbols of fidelity and advancement within the fraternity. Masons make a solemn promise not to reveal the secrets to anyone. It doesn't matter to him that you can find the secrets in print; what matters... is that he keeps his promise." 28 Second, it simply spoils the fun for new Masons receiving their degrees; learning a "secret handshake" is much less enjoyable, perhaps even boring, when you already know what it is. 29
Death of Freemasonry 14 Aside from its remarkable ability to raise money for charity, however, the real secret of Masonry has always been in plain sight. 30 For example, if one starts looking for the principal symbol of Freemasonry in one's community, which is the square and compasses encircling a capital "G" (see fig. 2), she will start to notice it is everywhere-- on buildings, on car bumpers, in books and frequently in films, on the rings and jewelry of passers-by, and so on. The secret of Masonry lies in the effects of this symbol on the viewer, not necessarily the meaning it signifies. The function of secrecy in Masonry concerns this symbol's seemingly recalcitrant strangeness, its enthymematic mystery, which is thought to provoke curiosity. 31 Masonry purports to have a route to Enlightenment, moral uplift, and spiritual awareness that is rooted in the mystery-effects of odd or strange language and symbols, a privileged practice and teaching that can be described as a Platonic or occult rhetorical theory. "Veiled in Allegory and Illustrated by Symbols": Masonic Rhetoric Explained It is by Rhetoric that the art of speaking eloquently is acquired. To be an eloquent speaker, in the proper sense of the word, is far from being either a common or easy attainment; it is the art of being persuasive and commanding, the art, not only of pleasing fancy, but of speaking both to the understanding and to the heart. --Lecture on "The Seven Liberal Arts and Sciences" to the Fellow Craft candidate 32 Although "Rhetoric" has fallen from institutional prominence in colleges and universities, because Masonic ritual and symbolism is hundreds of years old, one can understand why the Masons continue to "lecture" candidates on rhetoric. The ritual, liturgy, and catechism of the Blue Lodge have changed very little in the past 250 years.
Death of Freemasonry 15 If we understand the domain of rhetoric as having grown since the eighteenth century to include the broad study of persuasive (conscious) and suasvie (unconscious) processes in culture, however, one can characterize the whole of Masonic teaching, or what Masons term their "philosophy," as a particular kind or type of rhetoric that has a deep affinity with the occult rhetoric of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 33 Masonic Rhetoric as Occultism In his book length study of occult rhetoric, Joshua Gunn argues that we can define the occult as the study of secrets, and more specifically, as the study of secrets as they pertain to magic and mysticism. 34 Central to all occult rhetoric is the pride of place established for secrets and their telling, as well as the characteristically Platonic emphasis on spiritual truths that cannot be communicated in human language or representation. 35 Occult practices that attempt to change the world or reality by supernatural means concern magic (often of the ceremonial variety), whereas those concerned with contemplation, reflection, and the intuition of trans-symbolic truths are understood as coming from the traditions of hermeticism and mysticism. Freemasonry is in the second, hermetic camp and, protests to the contrary by some Masonic apologists, the fraternity is unquestionably an occult organization. 36 Central to most modern occult practices is a genre of rhetoric that obscures spiritual teachings in strange and often deliberately ironic prose and symbols. The rationale behind using deliberately recalcitrant prose and symbols was both social and spiritual. First, difficult language is discriminatory, marking off insiders and outsiders, and, as the Masons help to illustrate, this contributes to a sense of belonging for the insiders. 37 Yet, it can often lead to dismissal or persecution by outsiders. In fact, the discriminatory function of occult rhetoric parallels the function of irony in discourse
Death of Freemasonry 16 generally, which many rhetorical theorists since antiquity have noted can bond an audience as well as alienate one--and often at the same time. 38 Second, although speaking an occult language can invite persecution, it can also (ironically) help to protect a group of like-minded people from persecution, as was the case, for example, with the alchemists. Understood as both the proto-scientific quest to turn baser metals into gold, as well as a spiritual quest to improve one's soul, alchemy was practiced since antiquity well into the eighteenth century. 39 For fear of persecution by religious and state authorities, alchemists recorded their studies and teachings in the "language of the birds" or the "green language," a difficult cipher of symbolism, character, and codes. For example, Charles Walker reports that The thirteenth-century occultist Michael Scot once insisted that honey falls from the air into flowers, whence it is collected by the bees. To us, the idea is fanciful, yet Scot was versed in the secret arts, and he knew that the bee is an ancient symbol for the human soul, while honey is the thing which [sic] feeds the soul. 40 Yet there is also a certain poetic element to Scot's writing of bees, flowers, and honey that is not merely cipher; there is a sense in which the symbolism of bees is mysterious because, when one first confronts it, she is not quite certain what it means. In this respect, secrecy is about more than protecting one's thought from persecution or discriminating between insiders and outsiders; it is about the third function of occult rhetoric, the fetish character and mystery-effects of occult symbols. Gunn suggests that within the modern occult tradition, evocative, exotic, or otherwise bizarre representations functioned enthymetatically to encourage the aspirant or "reader" into higher states of spiritual consciousness and intuition. 41
Death of Freemasonry 17 Masons encourage this practice because of their professed faith in the ability of symbolism, coupled with an individual's reason, to intuit spiritual knowledge beyond the realm of signification. In her study of contemporary ceremonial magic, T.M. Luhrman explains the enthymematic function of occult language and symbol is premised consciously on a understanding of the contingency and limits of language: Magicians are explicitly told [by mentors] of the ambiguity of language, and different magicians use different words and images in different ways to characterize the same event. In discussion of magical ideas, and descriptions of magical practice, the specific words seem almost irrelevant: it is as if the word-value dwindles to its phatic importance, so that magicians use their descriptions of the ritual to signal a sense of involvement and commitment instead of as a means to convey information. 42 Although Freemasonry does not claim supernatural forces are at work during their rituals, Masons nevertheless use Masonic language and symbols similarly. There are large numbers of encyclopedias and dictionaries devoted to explaining the etymologies and complex meanings of the thousands upon thousands of occult symbols and strange words; only a handful of extremely learned Masons could specify the multiple meanings of all the words and Masonic symbols used or referred to in a given degree. Looking into one of the most celebrated Masonic encyclopedias provides a good example of the mystery-function of the fraternity's symbolism. Owing to its occult roots, it is not surprising that we find bees and the beehive are important symbols to Masons:
Death of Freemasonry 18 Fig. 3. A Masonic representation of the beehive On old jewels... lodge furniture, banners, summonses, certificates, etc., the beehive with its flying bees is often a prominent symbol, and in at least one case is to be found in a lodge seal. Carved models of beehives, a few inches high, have a place in one or two old lodges. As far back as 1724-27, a Masonic pamphlet, often attributed to Jonathan Swift... speaks at length of the bee and the beehive as a symbol, and apparently our seventeenth century brethren were taught that the beehive is "an emblem of industry recommending the practice of that virtue to all created things, from the highest seraph in heaven to the lowest reptile in the dust." 43 For the Masonic candidate, the beehive's significations--the human soul as well as the industry and the product of its labor (honey)--are not "revealed" until the Master Mason's degree--if at all. Henry Wilson Coil reports that mention of the beehive is
Death of Freemasonry 19 omitted in the lectures of the degree today, although the symbol is ubiquitous in Masonic literature and in the decorations, furniture, and architecture of lodges across the United States (see fig 3). What is important about the beehive, however, is not its basic meaning to Masons as "industry." What is important is what the aspirant himself makes of it, or how the image causes him to reflect on the mysteries of Masonry; or the complexities of human industry and social organization; or the role of the feminine in structuring society; or the division of labor in contemporary basic arrangements of the world; or the mysteries of an ordered universe and its relation to his own spirituality; and so on. In short: the symbol of the beehive is a kind of enthymematic ruse. That the beehive is a symbol that is discussed less and less by Masons points us the fourth function of difficult language: catalyzing curiosity by means of mystery. Unlike Lurhman's magicians, the "specific words" and symbols of Masonic ritual are nevertheless very important to a number of Masons because they pique curiosity and encourage further study. Termed "symbolism" or "symbology" in Masonic philosophy, the study of the symbolic relationships and meanings of Masonry's accrual of all things occult and religious in the past 250 years is often touted as the central, scholarly component of its philosophy. In many Masonic lodges, and especially those that are designated "research" lodges, it is common to have a member or guest speaker "give a talk" on his interpretation of a Masonic symbol, such as the beehive, or on a particular aspect of Masonic history, and so on (sometimes these orations are collected into books, which are then repackaged as scholarly examinations or reflections on the Craft; many of the most cherished books of Masonic philosophy were originally orations and speeches given at a lodge meeting). 44 Such study combines with the discriminatory, protective, and enthymematic functions of difficult rhetoric to
Death of Freemasonry 20 encourage further spiritual insight, or "more light," by the student Mason. The Masonic scholar Rex R. Hutches explains that in Freemasonry, symbols are thought to be instructive. They may clothe instruction for several reasons: first, the ideas taught cannot be expressed readily in ordinary language, such as descriptions of Deity; second, symbols can provide metaphorical garment by which ideas are presented on several levels... third, symbols provide ready mnemonics by which instruction may be remembered.... To study a symbol is to reflect on and explore it in the context of its history, allowing our minds to be led beyond the grasp of reason. 45 Although Freemasonry is not a religion, an attention to the way Masons speak about symbolism indicates the fraternity is an occult organization dedicated to both charity and spiritual contemplation, civic action as well as the scholarly study and mystical reflection. The unique contribution of Masonry to the tradition of modern occult rhetoric, however, is the way in which these two missions are united in the drama of the Mysteries. Masonic Rhetoric and The Mysteries When understood in relation to the ceremonial and ritual performance that occurs in Masonic lodges, the four functions of occult rhetoric exemplified by Masonry are unquestionably Platonic, and by extension, mark Freemasonry as the modern counterpart to the Ancient Mysteries. In the Cratylus, the Phaedrus, and the Republic, Plato argued that language taken literally could not express universal, spiritual truths. Only indirect allegory (mythoi) and dialectical speech--in other words, talking aloud to others back-and-forth and indirectly through myth--could ever inspire one to intuit
Death of Freemasonry 21 ultimately reality (and even then, only partially). 46 From this perspective, the "esoteric work" of oral memorization to learn the Masonic catechism of each degree is not only a device for secrecy, but a practice wedded to a faith in the spirituality of presentism. 47 The Platonic belief that speech presences thought and is therefore closer to spiritual truth bespeaks the centrality of drama, or the physical interaction of people in a staged ritual or performance. For these reasons, many prominent Masons have argued that the teachings of the Craft are derived from "The Mysteries," which are either a descendant of Platonism or at least originally based on the same ideas Plato harbored about the divine and our access to it. 48 Hutchens explains that The Ancient Mysteries were secret ceremonies which used drama, symbolism, and mythology to transmit religious and philosophical knowledge to selected initiates.... The parallels between Freemasonry and the Ancient Mysteries are evidenced by their similar objectives and methods. Through symbolism, mythology and drama, the Mysteries taught that man's soul was immortal and that virtue, not vice, provides the hope of immortality. 49 Whether or not one can trace Freemasonry as a direct descendent of The Mysteries is not as important as reckoning with their common cause in the important function of secrecy/mystery as a route to spiritual knowledge. In one of the largest and most difficult works of Masonic philosophy, Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry, which is a collection of "lectures" about both the Blue Lodge and Scottish Rite degrees, Albert Pike stresses the function of secrecy in the Mysteries was to create spiritual and intellectual curiosity, as well as respect for the teachings of the organization:
Death of Freemasonry 22 Curiosity was excited by secrecy, by the difficulty experienced in gaining admission, and by the test to be undergone. The candidate was amused by the variety of the scenery, the pomp and decorations.... Respect was inspired by the gravity and dignity of the actors and the majesty of the ceremonial; and fear and hope, sadness and delight, were in turns excited. 50 In rewriting the Scottish Rite degrees--and by literally moving a number of them to the theatre stage--pike yoked secrecy to the spiritual import of drama, a point Kenneth Burke repeatedly stressed was foundational to understanding rhetoric. Pike and Burke's views on ritual drama as both a reflection of social order as well as a reaction to the recalcitrance of brute reality and the mysteries of the universe are remarkably similar. "We propose to take ritual drama as the Ur-form, the 'hub'" of a rhetorical theory of drama, says Burke, with all other aspects of human action treated as spokes radiating from this hub. That is, the social sphere is considered in terms of situations and acts, in contrast with the physical sphere, which is considered in mechanistic terms.... Ritual drama is considered as the culminating from, from this point of view, and any other form is to be considered as the 'efficient' overstressing of one or another of the ingredients found in ritual drama. An essayistic treatise of scientific cast, for instance, would be viewed as a kind of Hamletic soliloquy, its rhythm slowed down to a snail's pace... and the dramatic situation of which it is part usually being unmentioned. 51 Pike's refiguring of the Scottish Rite degrees, which are presently taught, studied, and practiced, comprise a masterful illustration of Burke's social theory of "dramatism" (and
Death of Freemasonry 23 it should be said Burke's thinking here is very much in sympathy with the mysteries; if he is not an occultist proper, Burke certainly thought like one). For both Burke and Pike, the precondition of drama is mystery or uncertainty about others and the unknown. 52 Consequently, for Pike the secrets of Freemasonry were functionally fundamental to the fraternity's philosophical teachings; curiosity in this respect is not merely intellectual, but performative. Finally, Pike's belief that the structure of the Mysteries informing Masonic degree work inspired "respect" is in keeping with Burke's observation that "once a believer is brought to accept mysteries, he will be better minded to take orders without question from those persons whom he considers authoritative." 53 Such is the relation between teacher and pupil, preacher and parishioner, Master Mason and Apprentice-- and as Burke would have it, God and Satan. Like Pike, Burke suggests that "mystery is inescapable" because "symbol-systems are necessarily inadequate for the ab intra description of the non-symbolic." 54 Pike, however, failed to reckon with the point that Burke's dialectical thinking on the drama of mystery quickly led him to, a point that a number of Masons throughout history have had difficulty estimating: inasmuch as mystery can command respect and curiosity, it will also--and necessarily so--inspire distrust and a fear of subjection. Mystery inspires fantasies of conspiracy that only intensify scrutiny when coupled with the ideal of publicity. The Perils of Publicity, or, Dumbing Down the Mystery The conflict between secrecy and democracy would appear to be a recurrent phenomenon in our national history. Indeed, since the flowering of the modern secret society in the eighteenth century,
Death of Freemasonry 24 antisecretism as a state of mind has been an enduring fiber in the patter of Western culture. --Leland M. Griffin 55 In his classic study of the rhetorical structure of the Anti-Masonic movement, Leland Griffin carefully traces how the murder of an anti-mason, allegedly committed by a gang of Masons (which is known in the Masonic literature as the "Morgan Affair)," sparked an anti-masonic social movement that culminated in the development of a political party and "the first Antimasonic candidate for the Presidency" in 1831. 56 According to Griffin's account, in the fall of 1826 rumor was circulated among Freemasons of western New York to the effect that a former member of the lodge at Batavia, a bricklayer named William Morgan, was planning to publish the secret signs, grips, passwords, and ritual of Ancient Craft [Blue Lodge] Masonry. The anger of the Masons was soon translated into those actions that were to initiate the [Antimasonic] movement.... Morgan... was imprisoned on a false charge and shortly thereafter, abducted from his cell by a small band of Masons and driven in a closed carriage more than one hundred miles to Rochester; from there he was taken to the abandoned fort above Niagara Falls.... Morgan was locked in the castle of the fort--where, from that moment, all historical trace of him vanishes. 57 After Mogan's death, his book was published and became an instant bestseller, and an Anti-Masonic uproar led to twenty-one indictments and a trial for six, none of whom were charged with murder (it turns out the prosecutor and a number of jurors were Freemasons). After the trial, over a hundred Anti-Masonic newspapers sprung up and, as Hodapp puts it, helped to generate a "hysteria" that was "so bad that for nearly two
Death of Freemasonry 25 decades, a toddler couldn't get sick in the United States without someone claiming the Masons had poisoned the kid's porridge." 58 From a rhetorical vantage, what is particularly interesting to Griffin is the way in which the Anti-Masons created a "fund" of public argument via various channels of media circulation (newspapers, tracts, public lectures, sermons, and so on), and the rhetorical strategies of Masons in response to the many accusations against them: it was claimed that the Masons killed Morgan as a part of their bloodthirsty rituals; that they were conspiring to take over the newly established and united republic; that the Masons were in cahoots with the Devil, and so on. The first strategy the Masons used, which Griffin speculates may in part rely on common beliefs about persuasion at the time (e.g., the work of George Campbell), was to counter-attack: "The character and motives of Antimasons.... [Masons] charged that [Antimasons] were merely trying to 'raise an excitement,'" reports Griffin, "and declared that the 'blessed spirit' [viz., grace claimed by Anti-Masons] was rather an inquisitorial spirit, a product of delusion as the Salem witchcraft trials had been." 59 Apparently the counter-attack strategy was a disaster. Griffin argues that it led the Anti-Mason's to extend their agenda to the complete destruction of Freemasonry itself, and later, "the destruction of all secret orders then existing in the country." 60 Griffin argues that the second rhetorical response of Masons was no more effective, at least for the next decade as Masonic supporters or "Mason Jacks" stopped defending the fraternity. In 1830, under the "tacit leadership of President Jackson" (also a Mason), the Secretary of State Edward Livingston gave a speech to a number of Masons in which he urged "'dignified silence' in the face of the opposition's attack." 61 After this talk was circulated among Masons, Griffin notes that "the Masons became, in fact, virtually mute." 62 Meanwhile,
Death of Freemasonry 26 States began to pass laws against extrajuridical oaths, legislation which was intended to emasculate the secret order; lodge charters were surrendered, sometimes under legal compulsion but often voluntarily; Phi Beta Kappa abandoned its oaths of secrecy; Masonic and Odd Fellows' lodges began to file bankruptcy petitions; and membership rolls in the various orders began to dwindle to the vanishing point. 63 Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the fraternity began to recover and slowly increased in numbers. Membership steadily increased for decade after decade until it ballooned to four million members in the modern heyday of contemporary civic engagement in the post World War II United States. 64 Nevertheless, the rhetorical strategy of absolute silence in response to questions regarding Masonry--and especially in response to attacks--would persist until relatively recently. Hence, the tight-lipped response of an uncle or grandfather when questioned about the teachings of Freemasonry are not only a consequence of misunderstanding (e.g., that there really are no secrets anymore) or the consequence of revolutionary politics, but also a defensive impulse rooted in the fraternity's response to the Anti-Masonic crisis of the 1830s. Because of its commitment to tradition and ritual precedent, as well as the emphasis placed on scholarship and the study of its symbols and history, many Freemasons are aware of the history of Anti-Masonry and at least tacitly inculcated with the rhetorical habits of the fraternity; shaking the defensive "silent" response of the past when confronting popular publicity has been a long process. Because of the recent, positive portrayals of the fraternity in contemporary popular media, however, a number of prominent Masonic leaders have adopted a different strategy: (seemingly) a complete openness about the fraternity, its histories, its rituals, and its symbols. As
Death of Freemasonry 27 the membership numbers plummeted in the mid-nineteenth century, which effectively threatened the survival of the fraternity, the Masons chose to continue their charity and ritual work behind the closed doors of the lodge without a word. Today, as the fraternity faces a similar, though less dramatic, decline, a number of Masonic leaders have chosen to embrace recent publicity as an opportunity to stress the nonmysterious aspects of the Order. One reason that contemporary Masons have decided to appear more open to public curiosity is the recognition that publics--and their habits of information gathering--have changed dramatically in the twentieth century. 65 Pierre G. Normand, editor of Plumbline, the newsletter of one of the largest Masonic scholarly societies, the Scottish Rite Research Society, writes: I suppose the big news in the Masonic world of late is the onslaught of mixed blessings attendant to the release of The Da Vinci Code movie. [It]... mentions Freemasonry, however briefly and inaccurately, and, as a result, everyone's interested in the fraternity again.... We live in a world of tabloid journalism and conspiracy theories where the average American learns everything, not in the history section of the local library or bookshop, but at the checkout counter of the local grocery story [sic], or the movie theatre. 66 Apparently mindful of this attitude, Masonic officials made a number of strategic choices when ABC television network approached the Scottish Rite headquarters and requested a live broadcast last spring. Decisions were made to downplay the mysteryeffects of Masonic symbolism as well as the spiritual teaching occult practices of Masonry. "Secrecy" was deliberately re-coded as "private," disarticulating the fraternity from the long history of clandestine clubs in the language of publicity (e.g., the right to
Death of Freemasonry 28 keep some "private" things from public scrutiny). For example, when Richard E. Fletcher, Executive Secretary of the dominant Masonic PR association, spoke with the reporter Charles Gibson on national television, he flatly denied the label "secret society": Charles Gibson:... Do you accept this idea [that] it's [Freemasonry is] a secret society? Richard E. Fletcher: No, sir. Gibson: Not secret? Fletcher: It isn't. Gibson: Then why the secret handshakes and the secret rites, etcetera, that go on? Fletcher: Well, the handshakes--if you want to go in that direction--the handshakes are a throwback to our early days when Freemasonry was related to the actual builders in stone. Fletcher then explains the function of handshakes and passwords in medieval masonic guilds, but Gibson was determined: Gibson: But you know secret societies today raise suspicions. Now, you say it's not secret. But there are parts about it that we don t know. Fletcher: There are parts that are private. Now, if you're talking about what goes on behind closed doors and all those secret things. They're not secret. They're private. What we are doing is taking an individual man, bringing him into the fraternity through a series of degrees, and in those degrees, he is going to be challenged to look at such things as honesty, honor, integrity, how to make oneself a better person.... 67
Death of Freemasonry 29 The mere fact that the top leaders of the Scottish Rite allowed a popular morning news program to film inside the House of the Temple in Washington D.C., of course, betokens a very different approach to and attitude toward publicity than in its almost three-hundred year history. So, too, is "privacy" the replacement of "secrecy" in a number of the books written for the express purpose of popularizing the fraternity since the Da Vinci Code catalyzed popular curiosity. "Masons like to say that Freemasonry is not a secret society," reports Christopher Hodapp in his Freemasons for Dummies, "rather, it is a society with secrets. A better way to put this is that what goes on in a lodge room during its ceremonies is private." 68 Like Fletcher, Hodapp similarly downplays the centrality and function of mystery central to Masonic philosophy: although "it is tempting to believe that there are hidden mysteries and even magic contained in" Masonic symbols, "in fact, they're used to simply imprint on the mind the lessons of the fraternity." 69 In the same spirit of simplicity, Hodapp not only downplays the drama of Masonic ritual as a "throwback," but--and surprisingly so--dismisses the entire body of modern Masonic philosophy. In an offset blurb box titled "Mysticism, magic, and Masonic mumbo-jumbo," Hodepp writes: If you read enough about Freemasonry, you'll soon come across the writings of Albert Mackey, Manley Hall, Arthur Edward Waite, and Albert Pike. These men and many others have filled reams of paper with scholarly observations of Freemasonry. They eloquently linked the Craft to the ancient Mystery Schools of Egypt and elsewhere. They wrote that Masonry was directly descended from pagan rites and ancient religions.... The works of these men were filled with fabulous tales and beliefs and