Megara, Athens, and the Mythic Past: An Ideological War on History

Megara, Athens, and the Mythic Past: An Ideological War on History For the ancient Greeks, mythology was a historical record, a mythic past as real as recent history. While some Greeks at times doubted the historicity of myth, such doubt was born from a lack of evidence rather than an inherent distrust in the historical content of myth. 1 Mythic histories were integral to the self-identity of the Greek polis, and a polis connections to the mythic past shaped its self-identity in the present. 2 The deeds of local heroes or a divine founder gave a city prominence, pride, and a place in pan-hellenic history. The mythic past was not fixed and immutable, however. Rather, it was a fluid record that could be rewritten and reconceptualized so long as it was integrated into the larger pan-hellenic tradition. The pan- Hellenic past contained blank spaces perfect for local histories to situate themselves; it is these variations that formed a region s mythic history. These local mythic histories were re-interpreted and altered in response to external and internal threats to self-identity. What do these alterations reveal about the Greek relationship with the past, and the role of history in the present? In order to address these questions, I intend to investigate the relationship between self-identity and the mythic and contemporary history of Athens and Megara from 600 BC to 300 BC. I will focus on those myths most often contended by Megarian and Athenian authors. The frequency of their re-conception suggests their continued importance in defining self-identity. These stories are myths of a) Skeiron, b) the origins of the cult of Athena Skiras, c) Theseus and Ariadne, d) Theseus and Megara, and e) Pandion II and Nisus. I intend to demonstrate that mythic history was a realm in which local self- 1 Claude Calame, "The Rhetoric of Muthos and Logos: Forms of Figurative Discourse," in From Myth to Reason?: Studies in the Development of Greek Thought, ed. Richard Buxton (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 123. 2 In the following, when I speak of self-identity I will be referencing the collective local self-identity of a particular polis rather than the self-identity of an individual person.

2 identities were both negotiated and attacked as political needs motivated the re-conception of and assaults on the mythic past. Successfully imposing an altered mythic past on a polis could erode the city s connection to and position within the wider pan-hellenic traditions that formed the basis of everyday life. When Megara could no longer wield effective military power, it instead drew Athens into an ideological war over the past. This examination will view each mythic variant 3 as a record of contemporary feelings about the mythic past, and the writings of local historians as entries in a larger conversation about the symbolic meaning of various mythic figures and events. The development of a myth over time reflects the purposeful rewriting by local historians as mythic history evolves in response to historical circumstances and local needs. Changes in mythic history can be revealed through comparison of a variant to both prior local tradition and the broader pan-hellenic tradition represented in the early works of Homer and Hesiod and preserved in the works of Roman Republican authors. One can view these changes to mythic history against a timeline of Megarian-Athenian history in order to highlight periods of conflict and tension that threatened self-identity, providing insight into both the relationship between mythic and immediate history and the way a polis attempted to assert dominance over its own local traditions and alter those of its neighbors. The theoretical concepts of collective memory and intentional history underlie my approach. Hans-Joachim Gehrke defines intentional history as the communal generation of group identity through the construction of connections to the distant past. 4 The active creation of a collective past for the purposes of defining self-identity is a cornerstone of my analysis of myth, 3 A mythic variant is a particular iteration of a myth. For example, Sophocles Oedipus Rex is a variant of the Oedipus myth that is different than the versio presented by Homer. 4 Hans-Joachim Gehrke, Greek Representations of the Past, in Intentional History: Spinning Time in Ancient Freece, ed. Lin Foxhall, Hans-Joachim Gehrke, and Nino Luraghi (Stuttgart: F. Steiner, 2010), 15.

3 in which each historian is viewed as purposefully constructing a narrative of the past. The idea of collective memory as conceived of by Simon Price is equally important. Price views history as a collective memory, a remembrance of a common past. 5 The view of history as a shared, common recollection of distant events coincides with my assertion that individual historians record the beliefs and feelings of an entire community. Mythic history is an actively created, commonly shared articulation of a city s relationship with the past. Scholarship specific to mythic history and its connection with contemporary events has been sparse. Research on the Megarian-Athenian relationship has focused almost entirely on the war for possession of Salamis as an impetus for shaping mythic history. 6 I believe this focus is too narrow and too strongly privileges a single historical moment as the determinant of all behavior related to myth. It is improbable that a struggle ending in the 6 th century BC would be the primary influence on changes to the mythic past 300 years later. Other scholarship that examines myth and cult more generally has focused on broad surveys of Greece rather than examining the traditions of a single region over a span of time. In focusing on a single city and the changing role and form of myth in that populace, one can gain insight into the Greek relationship with history, the way in which self-identity was tied to the mythic past, and the manner in which these connections changed over the course of centuries. My sources are primarily textual and fragmentary. 7 Megarian authors are represented by Hereas, Dieuchidas, Praxion, and anonymous Megarian historians. Athenian authors are Pherekydes, Bacchylides, Sophocles, Androtion, Demon, Kleiodemos, Philochorus, the Parian Marble, and Attic historians known as the Attidographers. Pan-Hellenic voices are represented 5 Simon Price, Memory and Ancient Greece, in Historical and Religious Memory in the Ancient World, ed. Beate Dignas and R.R.R. Smith (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 15-16. 6 Carolyn Higbie, "The Bones of a Hero, the Ashes of a Politician: Athens, Salamis, and the Usable Past," Classical Antiquity 16, no. 2 (October 1997); John M Wickersham, Myth and Identity in the Archaic Polis, in Myth and the Polis, ed. Dora C Pozzi and John M Wickersham (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991). 7 All fragmentary evidence and its translation is that provided by the Brill Online New Jacoby

4 by Homer, Hesiod, Epimenides, Herodotus, Strabo, Hyginus, Apollodorus, Harpokration, Plutarch, and Pausanias. Iconography, preserved in monumental remains and pottery fragments, will be used to support the textual evidence and fill in gaps in the textual record. 8 The fragmentary nature of the textual evidence creates a number of concerns. The fragments are preserved by later authors selecting and quoting ancient sources. One must keep in mind that the extant evidence is not a complete record, but rather that which later writers chose to reference. Such concerns are not unusual in ancient history, however, in which one is always conscious of the loss of the written record. The preservation of text through quotation additionally means that some of the original context is lost. The valence of a particular statement, for example that Skeiron was the great-grandfather of Ajax, can be difficult to discern within a quotation. However, the discussion of a specific mythic event regardless of valence is often an important act of recognition in itself. It therefore cannot be said that the fragmentary nature of the textual evidence impedes an investigation into the mythic past. Those investigating ancient history must also contend with problems of dating. The date of production for a text is often uncertain. However, historians have become adept at dating fragments to within decades of their production using an author s biography, the circumstances of his life, his larger body of work, and a fragment s interaction with other texts. Finally, trends in iconography will be used to support the textual evidence and to fill in gaps in the extant record. The use if iconography requires that questions of audience and reception be carefully considered. Monuments constructed for an entire city are constrained by different rules than drinking cups intended for private use. My thesis will be divided into five sections, each examining a different myth in the Megarian-Athenian conversation. The first section will look at myths of Theseus and Skeiron 8 All iconography is that recorded in the Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC)

5 using the following sources: anonymous Megarian historians, Bacchylides, Pherekydes, pottery found in Attica, and the Athenian Treasury at Delphi and Temple of Hephaestus. 9 From this evidence one can see that attempts to define Skeiron s role in mythic history begin with Megara asserting his noble character 10 and Athens emphasizing his wickedness. 11 Political instability and turmoil emerge as the primary threats to self-identity during times of Skeiron s re-conception, with both Megara and Athens suffering regime change, revolt, and rapidly shifting fortunes in the broader pan-hellenic world. Each city was in need of a unifying symbol. The growth of Athenian imperial power leads to a more neutral representation of Skeiron, 12 while renewed hostilities with Megara correspond with a return to antagonistic representations and assertions of Skeiron s nobility. 13 From the debate one can see that the mythic past was a realm of political opportunity as successive regimes produced new versions of the past to rally around or repudiate. After the Peloponnesian War, Megara abandoned its efforts to maintain Skeiron s good character, instead questioning the origins of the Athenian cult to Athena Skiras. The second section of my thesis will discuss this shift in strategy. Evidence for this section includes the works of Praxion, Philochorus, the Attidographers, and Roman Republican commentary on the debate. 14 Origins of Athena s epithet are suggested to be the Megarian hero Skeiron, 15 an Eleusinian soothsayer named Skiros, 16 or Salaminian culture. 17 The debate may have been instigating by a border struggle for Eleusis between the two cities, while declining Athenian power and rising Megarian economic influence likely prompted attempts to reevaluate and reaffim self-identity. The emphasis on Eleusis and Salamis in much of the debate, both as an 9 Iconography is from the LIMC. 10 Anonymous Megarian historians quoted in Plutarch, Theseus 10 and Pausanias, Desciption 1.39.5 11 Bacchylides, Odes 18.15-26; Athenian Treasury at Delphi; Hephaisteon; Temple of Poseidon 12 Pherekydes as quoted in Apollodorus, Library 3.12.6 13 Hephaisteon; Temple of Poseidon; anonymous Megarian historians as quoted in Plutarch, Theseus 25.4 14 Herodotus, Histories, 8.94.2; Strabo, Geography, 9.1.9; Harpokration, Lexicon s.v. Skiron; Pausanias, 1.1.4 and 1.34.6. 15 Praxion, as quoted in Harpokration s Lexicon sv Skiron. 16 Philochorus, as quoted in Harpokration s Lexicon sv Skiron 17 Strabo, Geography, 9.1.9.

6 answer and an impetus, suggest that the immediate circumstances of a polis shaped relationships with mythic history rather than existing mythic content. Megara needed to question Athenian claims to Eleusis, and Athens needed to stress its rights to Salamis, and so a means was created. Athenian participation additionally suggests that uncertainties in the mythic past were so threatening they could not be ignored, even if that past had never been previously questioned. The third section of my thesis will build off Plutarch s assertion that Megara accused Athens of suppressing negative stories of Theseus and Ariadne. 18 Evidence is provided by Homer, Hesiod, Epimenides, Plutarch, Hereas, Pherekydes, Kleidemos, Philochorus, Hyginus, Apollodorus, Pausanias, and Attic iconographic representations. Rather than assess the Megarian-Athenian conversation, the examination will look to determine the truth of Megara s accusation. One can see that early pan-hellenic tradition focuses on Ariadne s marriage to Dionysus, 19 and her death at the hands of Artemis. 20 Theseus is present, but little of the extant tradition focuses on him. 21 His involvement in the slaying of the Minotaur and rescue of the Athenian youths becomes more prominent in the 5 th century in Athens. 22 At this time Athenian texts begin to emphasize the romance between Ariadne and Theseus, his genuine grief over her loss, and her happy ending as Dionysus wife, at times completely ignoring her seduction and abandonment. 23 Later Roman Republic sources emphasize the romantic aspect of the story and Theseus reluctance to give up Ariadne. 24 Traditions preserved of other cities, however, seem to view Theseus as relatively unimportant not unexpected considering his status as a local 18 Plutarch, Theseus 20 quotes Hereas of Megara accusing Peisistratus of editing the works of Homer and Hesiod 19 Hesiod, Theogon, 947-49; Epimenides as quoted by Diodorus Siculis 5.79 (BNJ 457 F 17). 20 Homer, Odyssey, 11.321-25. 21 There is a fragment of Hesiod preserved in the Athenaios 12.557 (BNJ 3 F 153) that suggests that Theseus transgressed oaths made to Ariadne. 22 Increase in iconographic representations, LIMC 23 Pherekydes as quoted in a Scholisast on Homer s Odyssey (FGrH 3 F 148); Kleidemos of Athens as quoted in Plutarch Theseus 19.8; Philochorus as quoted in Plutarch Theseus 19.2 24 Apollodorus E.1.8-9; Pausanias 10.29.4; Hyginus, Fab. 42

7 Athenian hero though his abandonment of Ariadne is present in some versions. 25 It seems, then, that while the Megarian accusation of sanitizing Theseus image is not groundless, Theseus abandonment of Ariadne was not a necessary element of earlier accounts that was suppressed. One must consider, then, the reason for both Megara s accusation and Athens later 4 th and 3 rd century sanitization of Theseus image. It is likely that Theseus poor behavior so threatened his symbolic effectiveness that Athenian authors felt the need to construct a more suitable past for their abduction-prone hero. Megara s motivations in accusing Athens of meddling in accounts of the epic past were likely an attempt to undermine Athens standing in Greece by accusing them of altering the mythic history from which all Greek cities drew their self-identity. The fourth section of my thesis will look at other miscellaneous stories told about Theseus and Megara. Evidence for this section is found in the works of anonymous Megarian historians, Hereas, Philochorus, and the Parian Marble. 26 The debate largely features Megarian voices accusing Theseus of murdering various Megarian princes 27 and stealing Eleusis. 28 These attacks crop up during times of territorial conflict between Athens and Megara. Athenian responses take an indirect approach, re-emphasizing claims to Eleusis or Theseus civilizing character as a unifier of all of Attica. 29 One can discern the way political needs shaped representation of the mythic past, justifying territorial aggression or explaining conquest. Additionally, the attacks on Theseus demonstrate Megarian beliefs in his symbolic importance. The repetition of attacks points to the perceived effectiveness of undermining self-identity 25 Plutarch Theseus 20 relays the tradition of Naxos in which Ariadne is abandoned and married to Dionysus; Hyginus Astronomy 1.2.5 relays that in Crete Ariadne s relationship with Dionysus is written about, and in Argos Theseus and Ariadne are both removed from the story they tell about Dionysus and the crown. 26 Plutarch, Theseus 10 and 25 and 32; Parian Marble, 20; Apollodorus, Epitome 1.2; Pausanias, 1.41.3-4. 27 Pausanias, 1.41.3-4 quoting anonymous Megarian historys; Hereas quoted in Plutarch, Theseus 32.6-7. 28 Plutarch, Theseus 10 quoting anonymous Megarian historians. 29 Philochorus; Parian Marble, Lost Fragment 20.

8 through the mythic past. If the enterprise had no real value, it is hard to believe that Megara would have expended so much energy contesting mythic history in so many fields. The final section of my thesis will offer a counterpoint to the association-rich myths of Theseus by examining stories told about Pandion II and his son Nisus. The investigation of two less symbolically-laden figures will allow for more general statements to be made about the Megarian-Athenian relationship with and use of mythic history. Sources for this section are Pausanias, Apollodorus, the Parian Marble, Philochorus, Phanodemos of Athens, the Attidographers, Sophocles, Andron, Bacchylides, and anonymous Megarian historians. Pandion II is claimed as king by both cities. Athenian sources name Pandion II the father of Aigeus 30 and grandfather of Theseus. 31 The division of Athens amongst Pandion II s heirs is emphasized, including the allotment of the Megarid to Nisus. 32 Megaraian sources focus on Pandion II s legitimate reign in Megara and the inheritance struggle between his son-in-law, Skeiron, and Nisus. 33 Interestingly, the Roman Republic authors Apollodorus and Pausanias speak of Pandion II s expulsion from Athens in a political coup, his flight to Megara, marriage to the daughter of the Megarian king, and inheritance of the Megarian throne. It is from Megara that Pandion II s sons launched their counteroffensive against Athens to reclaim the throne. 34 It is likely that this more expansive version of Pandion s life was constructed using now-lost Greek works, and reflects the traditions of Athens and Megara as no other city would have been concerned with Pandion II. From this myth, one can see that Megarian and Athenian writers are not so much denying the truth of each other s history as indicating the incomplete nature of that past. Gaps in 30 Bacchylides, Odes 17.14-20; Andron, as quoted in Strabo s Geography 9.1.6; Strabo, Geography 9.1.6 quotes the Atthidographers collectively; Phanodemos of Athens as quoted in Natale Conti s Mythologiae, 9.10; Philochorus, as quoted in Strabo s Geography 9.1.6; Parian Marble, The Lost Fragment 16-18. 31 Bacchylides, Odes 18.1-16. 32 Sophocles, fragment of Aigeus; Andron, as quoted in Strabo s Geography 9.1.6; Strabo, Geography 9.1.6 quotes the Atthidographers collectively; Philochorus, as quoted in Strabo s Geography 9.1.6 33 Anonymous Megarian historians as quoted in Pausanias, Description 1.39.4-6 34 Apollodorus, Library, 3.15.5-6; Pausanias, Description, 1.5.3-1.5.4 and 1.39.4.

9 local mythic history emerge as ground in which other cities could insert their own version of history that while not explicitly attacking a local symbol allowed for threatening claims to be made about Megarian sovereignty or the origins of Attic heroes. In conclusion, one can see that mythic history and its role was the subject of contention and renegotiation. The repetition of Megarian attacks on Athenian myth, and the strength with which those attacks were repudiated, demonstrates that self-identity was intricately bound to mythic history, with minor changes in the mythic past impacting a city s ability to use symbolic heroes. Changing elements of the past could erode a city s connection to and position in the wider pan-hellenic past, and question the everyday traditions of the polis. Raising questions and uncertainties about the mythic past was an effective strategy of resistance and attack. The emergence of the mythic past as a realm of debate during the war for Salamis when Megarian power began to decline and Athenian strength to rise suggests that Megara turned to the mythic past as an alternative to physical resistance. When Megara could no longer wield effective military power it instead waged an ideological war on Athenian history. Annotated Bibliography Primary Sources Apollodorus. Library. In Apollodorus Library and Hyginus Fabulae: Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology, 1-94. Translated by R. Scott Smith and Stephen M. Trzaskoma. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2007. Bacchylides. "Bacchylides, Odes and Dithrambs." Translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. Perseus Digital Library. Accessed October 24, 2013. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu.

10 Herodotus. The Histories. Translated by Andrea L. Purvis. Edited by Robert Strassler. New York: Anchor Books, 2007. Hesiod. Theogony. In The Homeric Hymns and Homerica. Translated by Hugh G Evelyn- White. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1914. Homer. Odyssey. Translated by A. T. Murray. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1919. Hyginus. Fabulae. In Apollodorus Library and Hyginus Fabulae: Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology, 95-183. Translated by R. Scott Smith and Stephen M. Trzaskoma. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2007. Newing, Gillian, trans. "The Parian Marble: The Lost Fragment." Ashmolean: Museum of Art and Archaeology. Last modified March 7, 2001. Accessed September 25, 2013. http://www.ashmolean.org/ash/faqs/q004/q004008.html Pausanias. Description of Greece. Translated by Sir James George Frazer. London: Macmillan and Co., 1913. Philostratus. The Lives of the Sophists. Translated by Wilmer Cave France Wright. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998. Plutarch. The Greek Questions of Plutarch. Translated by W. R. Haliday. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1928. ---. Solon. In The Rise and Fall of Athens: Nine Greek Lives, 43-76. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert. New York City: Penguin Putnam, 1960. ---. Theseus. In The Rise and Fall of Athens: Nine Greek Lives, 13-42. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert. New York City: Penguin Putnam, 1960. Strabo. The Geography of Strabo. Translated by H. C. Hamilton and W. Falconer. London: Henry G Bohn, 1854.

11 Thucydides. A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War. Translated by Richard Crawley. Edited by Robert Strassler. New York City: The Free Press, 1996. Encyclopedia Entries of Fragmentary Sources Jacoby, Felix. Androtion von Athen (Gargettos) (324). In Die Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker Part I-III, edited by Felix Jacoby. Last modified 2013. Accessed October 24, 2013. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/die-fragmente-der-griechischen- historiker-i-iii/androtion-von-athen-gargettos-324- a324?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.cluster.jacoby+online&s.q=androtion Jacoby s entry examines the fragments attributed to Androtion of Athens while also briefly discussing the life of the author and his role in the creation of Athenian history. ---. Kastor von Rhodos (250). In Die Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker Part I-III, edited by Felix Jacoby. Last modified 2013. Accessed October 24, 2013. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/die-fragmente-der-griechischen- historiker-i-iii/kastor-von-rhodos-250- a250?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.cluster.jacoby+online&s.q=castor&s.f.s2_parent_titl e=die+fragmente+der+griechischen+historiker+part+i-iii Jacoby s article provides a brief biography for Castor of Rhodes and analyses and translates all the fragments attributed to him. ---. Philochorus von Athen (328). In Die Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker Part I-III, edited by Felix Jacoby. Last modified 2013. Accessed October 24, 2013. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/die-fragmente-der-griechischenhistoriker-i-iii/philochoros-von-athen-328-

12 a328?s.num=6&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.cluster.jacoby+online&s.q=philochorus&s.f.s2_pare nt_title=die+fragmente+der+griechischen+historiker+part+i-iii This entry compiles all the fragments attributed to Philochorus of Athens, analyzing each fragment within the historical Attic and larger Hellenic traditions. Jones, Nicholas F. Anonymous / The Writers of the Atthides (329). In Brill s New Jacoby, edited by Ian Worthington. Last modified 2013. Accessed December 9, 2013. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-jacoby/anonymous-the- writers-of-the-atthides-329- a329?s.num=3&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.cluster.jacoby+online&s.q=atthis Jones entry compiles all the quotes anonymous attributed to authors of Attic history, with discussion about their potential authorship and the content of each quote in relation to broader Attic histories. ---. Demon of Athens (327). In Brill s New Jacoby, edited by Ian Worthington. Last modified 2013. Accessed December 9, 2013. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill- s-new-jacoby/demon-of-athens-327- a327?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.cluster.jacoby+online&s.q=demon Jones entry gathers all quotes attributed to the Atthidographer Demon of Athens, and analyzes their content and authorship in relation to other Attic histories. Liddel, Peter. "Anonymous, On Megara (De Megara)(487)." In Brill s New Jacoby, edited by Ian Worthington. Last modified 2013. Accessed October 11, 2013. http://www.encquran.brill.nl/entries/brill-s-new-jacoby/anonymous-on-megara-demegara-487-a487?s.num=3 Liddel s entry provides a brief overview of this unnamed author, the time during which scholars believe he wrote, and a list of fragments and references in other texts that make his extant corpus. ---. "Dieuchidas of Megara (485)." In Brill's New Jacoby, edited by Ian Worthington.

13 Last modified 2013. Accessed October 11, 2013. http://www.encquran.brill.nl/entries/brill-s-new-jacoby/dieuchidas-of-megara-485- a485?s.num=4. Liddel s entry provides an overview of Dieuchidas life as well as an examination of whether his works can be attributed solely to him or are instead the works of multiple authors that have been mistakenly attributed to a single author. He provides a list of fragments and references in other texts that make up Dieuchidas extant corpus, as well as the scholarly consensus on when Dieuchidas wrote. ---. "Hereas of Megara(486)." In Brill's New Jacoby, edited by Ian Worthington. Last modified 2013. Accessed October 11, 2013. http://www.encquran.brill.nl/entries/brill-s-new-jacoby/hereas-of-megara-486- a486?s.num=1 Liddel s entry provides an overview of Hereas life as well as an examination of whether his works can be attributed solely to him or are instead the works of multiple authors that have been mistakenly attributed to a single author through transliteration errors. He provides a list of fragments and references in other texts that make up Hereas extant corpus, as well as the scholarly consensus on when Hereas wrote. ---. Praxion of Megara (484). In Brill s New Jacoby, edited by Ian Worthington. Last modified 2013. Accessed October 24, 2013. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s- new-jacoby/praxion-of-megara-484- a484?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.cluster.jacoby+online&s.q=praxion Liddel s entry examines the fragments attributed to Praxion of Megara, discussing their content and placing them within the broader Hellenic tradition. He also discusses the authorship of Praxion, and whether or not his works are actually improperly attributed fragments of other writers. Meister, Klaus. Atthis. In Brill s New Pauly, edited by Hubert Cancik and Helmuth Schneider.

14 Last modified 2013. Accessed December 8, 2013. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/atthise207430?s.num=1&s.q=atthis Meister s entry provides a brief overview of writers of Attic history, the nature and development of the genre, and the chronology of authors believed to have written Atthides. Morison, William S. Klei(to)demos of Athens (323). In Brill s New Jacoby, edited by Ian Worthington. Last modified 2013. Accessed October 24, 2013. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-jacoby/klei-to-demos-ofathens-323-a323?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.cluster.jacoby+online&s.q=kleitodemos Morison s entry provides a brief biography of Kleitodemos of Athens, discussing his role as a historian of Attica and placing the fragments attributed to him within a broader Hellenic context. ---. "Pherekydes of Athens( 3)." In Brill's New Jacoby, edited by Ian Worthington. Last modified 2013. Accessed October 24, 2013. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-snew-jacoby/pherekydes-of-athens-3-a3?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.brill-s-newjacoby&s.q=pherekydes Morison s entry provides a brief biography of Pherekydes life and compiles, translates, and analyses the 180 fragments believed to be the work of Pherekydes. Parker, Victor. Ephoros (70). In Brill s New Jacoby, edited by Ian Worthington. Last modified 2013. Accessed October 24, 2013. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s- new-jacoby/ephoros-70- a70?s.num=12&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.cluster.jacoby+online&s.q=ephorus Parker s entry examines the fragments attributed to Ephoros, discussing the content of each fragment within the larger Hellenic tradition. Toye, David. "Epimenides (457)." In Brill s New Jacoby, edited by Ian Worthington. Last

15 modified 2013. Accessed October 24, 2013. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-jacoby/epimenides-457- a457?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.brill-s-new-jacoby&s.q=epimenides Toye s entry examines and translates the fragments attributed to the author Epimenides, discussing their content and their relation to broader historical and mythological thought. Secondary Sources: Boardman, John, ed. Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae. 18 vols. The LIMC is my primary resource for finding iconographic information about the myths I am examining. It also provides a useful analysis of broad trends in the iconography. It contains entries for Theseus and Ariadne, and for Theseus and Skeiron. The only drawback is that the Ariadne entry is in French and I had to translate it. Bohringer, Francois. Megare: Traditions Mythiques, Espace Sacre Et Naissance De La Cite. L Antiquite Classique 40, (1980): 5-22. Bohringer s article explores the formation myths of Megara and how they construct a sacred space within and about the city. His construction of competing genealogies and timelines from various myths, and his examination of the function of mythic elements, is a useful framework within which I can understand other Megarian myths that I encounter. Furthermore, his citations and bibliography provide further references for my research. Bowie, E. L. Greeks and Their Past in the Second Sophistic. Past & Present 46, (February 1970): 3-41. Bowie s article examines the way historians during the second sophistic period wrote about and viewed Greek history, pointing out biases and constraints that shaped their writings. His work is very useful for finding primary sources. Though the texts Bowie is examining may be beyond the time period in which I wish to focus, they indicate the

16 existence of earlier historians used as sources and may also be seen as reflecting an idealized view of Megara and Athens. Burnett, Anne. "Jocasta in the West: The Lille Stesichorus." Classical Antiquity. no. 2 (1988): 107-154. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25010885 (accessed September 12, 2013). Burnett s article is more useful as a methodological model for my research, as her article is focused on myths of Oedipus and Orestes rather than anything specific to Megara or Athens. However, the way in which she finds variant stories amidst fragmentary textual, physical, and ritual evidence and the way she analyzes and uses these hints of alternative versions to construct her argument is a useful model for my research which will likely delve into the impact of minor variations. Calame, Claude. The Rhetoric of Muthos and Logos: Forms of Figurative Discourse. In From Myth to Reason?: Studies in the Development of Greek Thought, edited by Richard Buxton, 119-143. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Calame s article discusses the way the modern category and conception of myth is inappropriate when applied in a classical context. He examines the interaction between muthos and logos in Greek rhetoric, demonstrating the overlap and intersection of the two thoughts. The article contains a number of useful conceptions regarding Greek approaches to mythology and history, and a number of insights into the blurred line between the two. Figueira, Thomas J. The Theognidea and Megarian Society. In Theognis of Megara: Poetry and the Polis, 112-159. Edited by Thomas J. Figueira and Gregory Nagy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985. Figueira s article examines how the works of Theognis may reflect realities about Megarian society during the time he was writing. Figueira also branches into an examination of how Theognis is not used as a historical source by later Megarian historians despite an established tradition of looking to past poets to explain the past. This lack of interest strikes Figueira as dissonant in comparison to the way other poets

17 are used in historical reconstructions, and his analysis may provide a useful model to help my understand and articulate the way classical historians used or ignored evidence. Foxhall, Lin, and Nino Luraghi. "Introduction." Introduction to Intentional History: Spinning Time in Ancient Greece, edited by Lin Foxhall, Hans-Joachim Gehrke, and Nino Luraghi, 9-14. Stuttgart: F. Steiner, 2010. Foxhall and Luraghi s introduction provides a useful overview of the concept of intentional history, and discusses the ways in which the study of intentional history can be applied to various aspects of Classical scholarship. The discussion gives examples of intentional history at work in the Greek world, including a number of Athenian examples that will be useful references for my own analysis. The discussion of the theoretical concept is very useful as well, as my thesis is investigating the production of intentional history in a particular region. Gantz, Timothy. Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1996. Gantz s anthology looks to examine popular Greek myths, demonstrating the most common narrative across the pan-hellenic tradition and pointing out interesting variations to the standard narrative. His book is incredibly helpful, because he examines a broad range of literary and physical sources, referencing obscure fragments that I would otherwise have not been aware of. His work allows me to expand my basis of primary sources and create a more comprehensive picture myth transmission and myth variation over time. Gehrke, Hans-Joachim. Greek Representations of the Past. In Intentional History: Spinning Time in Ancient Greece, edited by Lin Foxhall, Hans-Joachim Gehrke, and Nino Luraghi, 15-33. Stuttgart: F. Steiner, 2010. Gehrke s article is an examination of the idea of intentional history that he defines as the way a community constructs its connections to the distant past as a means of generating group identity. This is essentially the focus of my thesis, and so Gehrke s discussion of the emergence of intentional history, its role in a society, and its

18 appearance during the archaic and classical periods is import in helping to define the scholarly theories my thesis is building upon. Graf, Fritz. Greek Mythology: An Introduction. Translated by Thomas Marier. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Graf s introduction to Greek mythology is especially useful in the chapters he devotes to myth and epic poetry, and myth as history. His analysis summarizes broad scholarly trends in each field. He examines the way epic poetry can be used as a source for historical events, cultural context, and as a repository of other myths. His chapter on myth as history examines the Greek beliefs about history and the way that myth fit into that concept, a summary that will be very important as my thesis is dealing with the blurred line between myth and history in Greece. Guiliani, Luca. Myth as Past? On the Temporal Aspect of Greek Depictions of Legend. In Intentional History: Spinning Time in Ancient Greece, edited by Lin Foxhall, Hans- Joachim Gehrke, and Nino Luraghi, 37-55. Stuttgart: F. Steiner 2010. Giuliani discusses the absence of temporal markers in Greek iconography, concluding that there is no particular set of images that indicating a past even was being depicted in Greek iconography. Instead, military events of the heroic past were represented using modern technology, and fights between warriors were always shown as individual combat even if modern phalanx warfare was being represented. The lack of temporal indicators is important to keep in mind in interpreting my own iconographic sources. Hall, Jonathan M. Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Hall s investigation of ethnicity as it was conceived of in antiquity delves more into the anthropological investigation of the topic than I am interested. However, he has a number of relevant points about the way myth was used to construct identity that directly relate to the focus on local self-identity of the polis that I have adopted as my interpretive framework. Hanell, Krister. Megarische Studien. Lind: A-b. PH Lindstedts University-bokhandel, 1934.

19 Krister s examination of Megarian history and myth is incredibly useful. He discusses the possible origins of many of the legends and cults I am interested in, such as the stories of Skiron and Alcathous, and analyses their transmission between Megara and Athens during the formation of each city s mythologies. His perspective is a unique one I have not seen elsewhere, and I would like to determine whether it is a view widely accepted among the scholarly community or if there is more debate regarding the crosspolis transmission of the myths. I would also like to seek a better translation than the rough one I performed myself using the internet. Herman, Gabriel. Ritualised Friendship and the Greek City. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Herman s book is focused on the way xenia and other forms of ritual friendship functioned in the Greek world across history. While this examination is not the focus of my thesis, his examination of the way diplomatic efforts were structured around traditional xenia models could prove useful in examining the way Megara and Athens interacted in the political sphere. Higbie, Carolyn. The Bones of a Hero, the Ashes of a Politician: Athens, Salamis, and the Usable Past. Classical Antiquity 16, no. 2 (October 1997): 278-307. Higbie s article delves into the way Athens and Megara both tried to leverage myth to stake a claim on Salamis during their war over the island. Higbie is focusing on Solon s methods of argument and proof. She makes a point of showing how Solon s techniques can be seen at work elsewhere throughout the Greek world, a point that is useful in helping me understand classical Greek views of history and the role of history in the present. Highbarger, E.L. The History and Civilization of Ancient Megara. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1927. Highbarger s history of Megara from pre-historic to Hellenistic times helpfully breaks Megarian history down into small periods of change, such of the period of tyranny, the time of social revolution, the Persian War. The book also has a good compilation and summaries of various myths and cults associated with Megara. However, his

20 interpretive framework skews too hard toward reconstructing the course of history relying on the contents of myth. Though he says interesting things and suggests interesting historical moments, his statements seem too speculative to be trusted fully in light of their overreliance on the mythic tradition. Jacoby, Felix Atthis, The Local Chronicles of Ancient Athens. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1949. Jacoby s book examines in great detail every aspect of the historians of local Attic history, from what their sources were to why ancient scholars chose to refer to them collectively as the Atthis. This level of detail is more dense and focused than I am interested in, though once I sifted through the chapters there was some useful information regarding the background of the Attic historians, their methods, and the content and dating of their works. Jones, C. P. Kinship Diplomacy in the Ancient World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999. Jones book examines the way diplomacy in the ancient world was structured around fictive kinship ties developed through tracing descent from a common mythical ancestor. His examination provides an interesting analysis of Greek views of history and specifically the way mythic history could be utilized to benefit present circumstances. His focus is on diplomacy specifically and largely during the Hellenistic period, but I think it can still be a useful model for my own research and understanding. Kennedy, Rebecca Futo. "Justice, Geography and Empire in Aeschylus' Eumenides." Classical Antiquity 52, no. 1 (April 2006): 35-72. Kennedy s examination of Aeschylus Eumenides finds a politically oriented message behind the tragic cycle that comments on the immediate events of Aeschylus times, providing a commentary on Athens and its growing imperial role. While I am not dealing with the works of Aeschylus or the myths of Orestes, I think her analysis can serve as a useful model of the ways in which the elements of particular variants can be interpreted against historical contexts. Konstan, David. To Hellenikon Ethnos: Ethnicity and the Construction of Ancient Greek

21 Identity. In Ancient Perceptions of Greek Ethnicity, edited by Irad Malkin, 29-50. Cambridge: Center for Hellenic Studies, 2001. Konstan s article makes some interesting assertions regarding the construction of ethnic identity in Greece that challenge the views of Hall. While his overall focus does not interest me, his article is a useful methodological model for the process of determining how myth was used to shape ethnic identity. He has a section on Pausanias that may be particularly useful when I must discuss the works quoted by that author. Legon, Ronald P. "Megara." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, edited by Michael Gagarin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. Legon s encyclopedia entry provides a brief, condensed overview of the history of Megara and its role as a strategic buffer state between Athens, Corinth, and the Peloponnese. This short overview is useful for providing a quick understanding of Megarian history and the broader tensions at work. It is brief, however, so a larger text would provide more specific examination of some of the tensions that this entry only references. ---. Megara: The Political History of a Greek City-State in 336 B.C. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1981. Legon s in-depth history of Megara draws on a number of primary sources, bringing together a wide array of evidence to construct what Legon believes is the most probably history of the city. He examines questions of dating and source authenticity in great detail without becoming overwhelming, presenting both the general scholarly opinion and strongest dissenting voices before weighing in on the discussion. This will be very useful when I begin the process of examining the place of mythic variants against a chronology of Megarian-Athenian history. McInerney, Jeremy. Politicizing the Past: The Atthis of Kleidemos. Classical Antiquity 13, no. 1 (1994): 17-37. McInerney s article conducts an in-depth examination of the few fragments available of the Athenian historian Kleidemos, analyzing the political and historical circumstances

22 under which Kleidemos wrote and the political implications of Kleidemos work. He focuses on Theseus and Ariadne for a section, as well as on how Theseus functioned as a symbol in Athenian politics, which will be useful for my analysis of both those things. "Megara." In The Oxford Classical Dictionary, edited by Simon Hornblower, Antony Spawforth, and Esther Eidinow. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. A brief encyclopedia entry that touches on the geographic importance of Megara as a city located on routes from the Peloponnese into central Greece, between Athens and Corinth, and Eleusis and Boeotia. It touches on references to a tradition of subjugation of Boeotia in the archaic past, and explores significant moments of Megarian history that provides a convenient brief framework. Nagy, Gregory. Theognis and Megara: A Poet s Vision of His City. In Theognis of Megara: Poetry and the Polis, 22-81. Edited by Thomas J. Figueira and Gregory Nagy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985. Okin, Louis A. Theognis and the Sources for the History of Archaic Megara. In Theognis of Megara: Poetry and the Polis, 9-21. Edited by Thomas J. Figueira and Gregory Nagy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985. Okin s article examines Theognis and his works as a potential historical source, tracing the way evidence was transmitted. He also explores how historians writing centuries after the events they wrote about conducted their research in the ancient world. His article is moderately helpful, though a lot of its content is summarized in later scholarly works. Parker, Robert. Athenian Religion: A History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Parker s examination of the cult practices related to Athena Skiras and its association with the Salaminioi genos of Athens is a useful contextualization for the debate over the origins of this particular cult. Parker delves into the possible answers to this question and discusses the various connotations of different origins, an analysis that will help structure my own examination of the importance of various assertions about Athena Skiras origins.

23 Piccirilli, Luigi. METAPIKA: Testimonianze e frammenti: introduzione, edizione critica, traduzione, comment e indici. Pisa: Marlin, 1975. Piccirilli s book looks to examine the fragments that make up our corpus of Megarian history. Though much of his commentary rehashes information provided in the New Jacoby, he has some useful commentary and insight. He indicates Attic countertraditions and the primary sources in which I can examine these alternatives to Megarian history, which is very useful for my topic. Polignac, Francois de. Cults, Territory, and the Origins of the Greek City State. Translated by Janet Lloyd. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995. Polignac s book is an examination of the creation and role of cults in ancient Greece. His work contains useful insights into the way religion and cult practice reflect social situation and direct social development. However, he is largely concerned with examining the specifics of sanctuaries and rituals across Greece, and finding the sociohistoric roots of religious development. There is not much specific to Athens and Megara. Prakken, Donald W. A Note on the Megarian Historian Dieuchidas. The American Journal of Philology 63, no. 3 (1941): 348-351. Prakken s brief article attempts to ascertain the time period during which Dieuchidas lived and wrote. This is useful for situating the time in which Dieuchidas, and the other historians mentioned in the discussion, lived and wrote which helps create a picture of the transmission of myths across generations. ---. On the Date of Hereas, the Megarian Historian. In The Classical Weekly 37, no. 11 (January 10, 1944): 122-123. Prakken s article looks to date Hereas time of writing and also examines briefly whether some of the Megarian historians that make up the tradition of 4 th century Megarian historical writing may actually be the same historian whose name was misprinted during the ages. Price, Simon. Memory and Ancient Greece. In Historical and Religious Memory in the Ancient

24 World, edited by Beate Dignas and R.R.R. Smith, 15-26. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Price articulates a theory of collective memory which sees history as an act of remembrance and the writing of history is an active process of construction. Price goes on to suggest that the study of this collective memory allows scholars to understand the mind-sets of past people and helps to prevent anachronistic projections onto the past. He examines four contexts in which collective memories were created: objects and representations, places, ritual behavior and myth, and textual narratives. His articulation of a theory of collective memory is an incredibly relevant theoretical concept for my thesis, which is looking to examine the change in local collective memories over time. Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane. Reading a Myth, Reconstructing its Construction. In Myth and Symbol II: Symbolic Phenomena in Ancient Greek Culture, edited by Synnove des Bouvrie, 141-177. Bergen: The Norwegian Institute at Athens, 2004. Sourvinou-Inwood s article is at times dense and difficult to follow, but is a great model of how one can analyze ritual and myth together in order to fill in the gaps in one using the content of the other. I am uncertain whether I will try to draw mythic details out of the remnants of ritual practice in Athens and Megara, but if I do so this article lays out the manner in which I would proceed. Von den Hoff, Ralf. Media for Theseus, Or: The Different Images of the Athenian Polis-Hero. In Intentional History: Spinning Time in Ancient Greece, edited by Lin Foxhall, Hans- Joachim Gehrke, and Nino Luraghi, 161-188. Stuttgart: F. Steiner, 2010. Von den Hoff s article examining representations of Theseus in monumental architecture and vase painting provides a useful context for my examination of two specific subgenres of Theseus images, Theseus with Skeiron and Theseus with Ariadne. He examines the reception of specific iconographic traditions and highlights various changing trends in Theseus representation and the probable thought process behind them. Wick, T. E. and T. T. Wick. Megara, Athens and the West in the Archidamian War: A Study in