ACTS 23 PAUL AND THE SANHEDRIN Orest Solyma Church of God in Williamstown In Acts 22 we briefly covered Paul s address to the enraged Jerusalem mob [probably on Pentecost, c.57, or 58 AD]. Claudius Lysias, captain of the Temple garrison (the Antonia Fortress; centurion over a 1000 troops [760 troops; 240 horsemen] trained for riot control), saved Paul from being beaten to death, but thought he had captured an Egyptian insurrectionist leader (21:38). On discovering that Paul was a Roman citizen by birth (Roman citizenship conferred special privileges, whereas his citizenship was purchased at great personal cost), he ordered the Sanhedrin to meet the next day. Acts 22:30 The next day, because he wanted to know for certain why he was accused by the Jews, he released him from his bonds, and commanded the chief priests and all their Council to appear, and brought Paul down and set him before them. THE SANHEDRIN (Gk. ; synedrion; or the body of elders [presbyterion]; or the senate [gerousia]). Just how important are the clashes with Christ, His followers and the Sanhedrin? What is its role and importance in the scheme of things in the NT? The Mishnah [oral traditions written down by Rabbi Judah Ha-Nasi, c. 200 BC calls this assembly of 71 [presided over by the High Priest] the Great Sanhedrin, the Great Law Court, the Sanhedrin of 71]. About 70 BC Pharisees were admitted who were the lay theologians, scribes, lawyers, whereas the Sadducees were the priests and clergy (See The Jews from Alexander to Herod by D.S. Russell; OUP, 1967; pp 116-8; The New Testament Environment by Eduard Lohse, Abingdon, 1976; pp 74-83; New Testament History by F.F. Bruce; Doubleday, 1980; pp 69-81). This supreme court was supposed to be a reflection of the Court in Heaven. We first hear of the Council of the 70 Elders in Ex 24:1,9-11 at the ratification of the Covenant; and in Num 11:16-17 when Moses complains of the huge burden of looking after the entire nation. Incidentally, Mr HWA was one of the 70 chosen by lot on 4th Nov., 1933, in Salem, West Virginia, to re-organize the Church of God (7th Day). The structure included the Twelve, who were selected first, then the 70 chose the Seven. There was also a unanimous vote to have Jerusalem as the church s HQ, which this assembly did not act upon. (A History of the True Religion, Dugger & Dodd; 1972; pp 302-6). Ex 24:1,9-11 Now He said to Moses, Come up to the LORD, you and Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel, and worship from afar. 9 Then Moses went up, also Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel, 10 and they saw the God of Israel. And there under His feet was as it were a paved work of sapphire stone, and it was like the very heavens in its clarity. 11 But on the nobles of the children of Israel He did not lay His hand. So they saw God (Elohim; i.e., the preincarnate Son of God, who is also (a) God; Ex 23:21), and they ate and drank. Num 11:16-7 So the LORD said to Moses: Gather to Me seventy men of the elders of Israel, whom you know to be the elders of the people and officers over them; bring them to the tabernacle of meeting, that they may stand there with you. 17 Then I will come down and talk with you there. I will take of the Spirit that is upon you and will put it upon them; and they shall bear the burden of the people with you, that you may not bear it alone. [cp Ezk 20:1; 14:1; 8:1].
ORIGINS OF THE COUNCIL OF 70 Of what significance is the Council? What is the biblical culture to such a council -- the Sanhedrin, with 70 members, the High Priest presiding, and with the presence of God, making 72 entities? Some say that the traditional origins are in representing rulership, through God s theocracy, over the whole world on the premise that 70 nations in Genesis 10 represent the entire world (see Dt 32:8 NRSV, NJB, NEB and footnotes). (Japheth: Gomer, Ashkenaz, Ripath, Togarmah, Magog, Madai, Javan, Elishah, Tarshish, Kittim, Dodanim, Tubal, Meshech, Tiras (14); Ham: Cush, Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah, Sheba, Dedan, Sabtecha, (Nimrod), Mizraim, Ludim, Anamin, Lehabim, Naphtuhim, Patrusim, Casluhim, Philistines, Caphtorim, P(h)ut, Canaan, Sidon, Heth, Jebusite, Amorite, Girgashite, Hivite, Archite, Sinite, Arvidite, Zemorite, Hamathite (30); Shem: Elam, Asshur, Arpachshad, Shelah, Eber, Peleg, Joktan, Almodad, Sheleph, Hazarmaveth, Jerah, Hadoram, Uzal, Diklah, Obal, Abimael, Sheba, Ophir, Havilah, Jobab, Lud, Aram, Uz, Hul, Geth, Mash (26). In some apocryphal and pseudepigraphical works from before NT times, there are references to a council in heaven with 72 members (e.g., 3En 30). THE OLD TESTAMENT PSEUDEPIGRAPHA [Editor: J.H. Charlesworth] has a lengthy Introduction to 3 Enoch (supposedly a Hebrew work written by Rabbi Ishmael who died shortly before the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132 AD In the Introduction is a section entitled, The heavenly law court: Building on such biblical texts as 1 Kings 22:19-22, Psalm 82, Job 1:6-12, and especially Daniel 7:9f., the rabbis taught that there is a heavenly court... over which God presides (b.sanh 38b; ExR 30:18; LevR 24:2). It was regarded as the heavenly counterpart of the early Sanhedrin (b.sanh 99b; b.ber 16b/17a), and there was earnest discussion as to the relative jurisdictions of the two courts... The heavenly court is one of the main themes of 3 Enoch... According to 3 Enoch 30:1f. the court is made up of seventy-two princes of kingdoms (called YHWH) (ibid. p 244, Vol 1) [My name is in Him! Ex 23:21]. D.S. Russell in The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic, p. 168] says: In such passages as 1 Kings 22.19ff. (also 1Ki 22:1-6,10-23; 2Chr 18:17-24), Job 1.6ff. (also 2:1-7; 38:7) and Isa. 6.6ff. (also see Ps 97:7-9; 99:1; Dn 7:9-14; Rev 5:1-6,11-14) God is described as presiding over a heavenly Council whose members are there to carry out his will. He is a God very terrible in the council of the holy ones (Ps. 82.1; also 29:1; 89:6,7) and who in the beginning spoke in the name of these heavenly beings and said, Let us make man in our own image (Gen 1.26). This Council is attended, however, not only by gods and angels but also by men; for it is the privilege of the truly inspired prophet to stand in the midst and hear the word of Yahweh (cf. Jer 23:18ff.). In this connection the Old Testament emphasis is on the visionary experience rather than transportation or translation such as we have found in the apocalyptic references. So we have evidence of belief in a Council in heaven and the functioning of a Council among the people of God when organized theocratically as under Moses (also see Theology of the Old Testament by Walther Eichrodt, SCM, 1985; pp 194-205). The scholarly derision of the Council of God is extensive, as references given above make very clear. The derision of D.R. Jones in his Jeremiah (New Century Bible Commentary; HarperCollins, 1992) is a typical example: The idea of the council (sod) of the LORD is a colourful and recurring feature of Hebrew mythology. Here in his heavenly court the LORD makes his plans and sends out his messengers and servants to do his will. Around him are the sons of God, (in polytheistic systems gods ), later understood as angels (Zech. 1.7-17). They planned the creation of man (Gen. 1.26); they engage in worship and praise (Ps. 29); they send prophets to deliver the LORD s messages and perform his will, both the true prophets called to be his servants (Am. 3.7; Is. 6) and the false prophets who are activated by lying spirits (1 Kg. 22.17-23). They discuss the situation on earth and plan the testing of chosen individuals (Job 1). A significant point about prophets is that they have been admitted to this council, and have been told the LORD s will, and appear as messengers to deliver it. The effect of the myth is to declare precisely that 2
the prophets have not concocted their preaching from their own imaginations or dreamed it. They are simply messengers passing on a message from their master. (p 309). N.T. about the SANHEDRIN The first reference to the Council in the N.T. is of interest: Mt 5:22 But I say to you that whoever is angry with his brother without cause shall be in danger of the judgment. And whoever says to his brother, Raca! (an Aramaic word; obscure meaning) shall be in danger of the Council (Which Council?). But whoever says, You fool (Gk moros)! shall be in danger of hell fire. (Moros is used to indicate scorn of the heart and character; in Mt 23:17,19 Christ calls the scribes and Pharisees Fools! ; and Mt 25:2 -- speaks of the 5 foolish virgins. These are with cause and reason). The next reference is: Mt 10:16-8 Behold, I send you out as sheep in the midst of wolves (Contra wolves among the sheep [Mt 7:15]). Therefore be wise as serpents and harmless as doves. 17 But beware of men, for they will deliver you up to councils and scourge you in their synagogues. 18 You will be brought before governors and kings for My sake, as a testimony to them and to the Gentiles. More examples are: Mt 26:59-60 (also Mk 14:55) Now the chief priests, the elders, and all the Council sought false testimony against Jesus to put Him to death, but found none. Even though many false witnesses came forward, they found none. But at last two false witnesses came forward. Conspirators go to a lot of trouble to cause trouble to the innocent. Mk 15:43 Joseph of Arimathea, a prominent Council member, who was himself waiting for the kingdom of God, coming and taking courage, went in to Pilate and asked for the body of Jesus (also Lk 23:50; Jn 19:38). Lk 22:66-7 As soon as it was day, the elders of the people (Gk.: presbyterion tou laou), both chief priests and scribes, came together and led Him into their Council, saying, 67 If You are the Christ, tell us. But He said to them, If I tell you, you will by no means believe. Frequently, the Bible reveals that the telling of truth is not believed. But the telling of lies is believed. Lk 23:50 Now behold, there was a man named Joseph, a Council member, a good and just man. Jn 3:1 There was a man of the Pharisees named Nicodemus, a ruler of the Jews (therefore he was very likely a member of the Sanhedrin). Jn 11:47-8 Then the chief priests and the Pharisees gathered a Council and said, What shall we do? For this Man works many signs. If we let Him alone like this, everyone will believe in Him, and the Romans will come and take away both our place and nation. Typically, the lust for keeping and building power, status, and money dominate behaviour. Jn 19:38 After this, Joseph of Arimathea, being a disciple of Jesus, but secretly, for fear of the Jews, asked Pilate that he might take away the body of Jesus; and Pilate gave him permission. So he came and took the body of Jesus. The history of the anti-god behaviour of the Council continues beyond the condemnation of Jesus Christ, but pursues His followers. Acts 4:5,6,13-5 It came to pass, on the next day, that their rulers, elders, and scribes, 6 as well as Annas the high priest, Caiaphas, John, and Alexander, and as many as were of the family of the high priest, were gathered together at Jerusalem. 13 Now when they saw the boldness of Peter and John, and perceived that they were uneducated and untrained men, they marveled. They realized that they had been with Jesus. 14 And seeing the man who had been healed standing with them, they could say nothing against it. 15 But when they had commanded them to go aside out of the Council, they conferred among themselves. Acts 5:21 And when they (the apostles in prison) heard that (the angel told them to continue to teach), they entered the temple early in the morning and taught. But the high priest and those with him came and called the Council together, with all the elders of the children of Israel, and sent to the prison to have them brought (They were released and back at preaching the Gospel!) 3
Acts 5:27-8 And when they had brought them, they set them before the Council. And the high priest asked them, saying, Did we not strictly command you not to teach in this Name? And look, you have filled Jerusalem with your doctrine, and intend to bring this Man s blood on us! Acts 5:34 Then one in the Council stood up, a Pharisee named Gamaliel, a teacher of the law held in respect by all the people, and commanded them to put the apostles outside for a little while. Acts 5:40 And they agreed with him, and when they had called for the apostles and beaten them, they commanded that they should not speak in the Name of Jesus, and let them go. 41 So they departed from the presence of the Council, rejoicing that they were counted worthy to suffer shame for His Name. Acts 6:12,15 They stirred up the people, the elders, and the scribes; and they came upon him, seized him, and brought him to the Council. 15 And all who sat in the Council, looking steadfastly at him (Stephen), saw his face as the face of an angel. Acts 7:55-8 But he, being full of the Holy Spirit, gazed into heaven and saw the glory of God, and Jesus standing at the right hand of God, 56 and said, Look! I see the heavens opened and the Son of Man standing at the right hand of God! 57 Then they cried out with a loud voice, stopped their ears, and ran at him with one accord; (What amazingly intelligent behaviour. They rejected the fact that God, not their Hellenistic view of God, has a Son and a Council around Him. They cannot accept that their view of God is false. Similarly, the scholars, as exemplified in previous references, despise the God of the patriarchs, prophets, apostles, whom most reject, as do most in the churches of God. 58 and they cast him out of the city and stoned him. The witnesses laid down their clothes at the feet of a young man named Saul. Let s continue with where we left off last time in the Bible study. Acts 22:30 The next day, because he (Lysias) wanted to know for certain why he was accused by the Jews, he released him from his bonds, and commanded the chief priests and all their Council to appear, and brought Paul down and set him before them. We should note that the trends already shown continue relentlessly. Acts 24:1 After five days Ananias the high priest came down with the elders and a certain orator named Tertullus (Equivalent to the hire of a renowned, highly skilled, and eloquent barrister). These gave evidence to the governor against Paul. 20 Or else let those who are here themselves say if they found any wrongdoing in me while I stood before the Council, 21 unless it is for this one statement which I cried out, standing among them, Concerning the resurrection of the dead I am being judged by you this day. 22 But when Felix heard these things, having more accurate knowledge of the Way, he adjourned the proceedings and said, When Lysias the commander comes down, I will make a decision on your case. 23 So he commanded the centurion to keep Paul and to let him have liberty, and told him not to forbid any of his friends to provide for or visit him (We ll see later that a key motive of his was to create a situation where Paul might bribe him). The Bible predicted that these sorts of gross mistreatments of God s servants and disciples would happen! Isa 66:5 Hear the word of the LORD, you who tremble at His word: Your brethren who hated you, who cast you out for My name s sake (i.e., both groups, tares and wheat, sheep and goats, are in the same field or grouping), and said, Let the LORD be glorified, that we may see your joy. But they shall be ashamed. How strange that those who are with a false god, grouped with those worshipping the true God, gloat in the name of their god, but speak and outwardly appear to speak in the Name of the true God. Jn 16:1-3 These things I have spoken to you, that you should not be made to stumble. They will put you out of the synagogues; yes, the time is coming that whoever kills you will think that he offers God service. These things they will do to you because they have not known the Father nor Me. The power of this Truth is consistently overlooked. Matthew 26:59-67 (also Mk 14:55-65; Lk 22:66-71) confirms these facts: Mt 26:59 Now the chief priests, the elders, and all the Council sought false testimony against Jesus to put Him to death, 60 but found none. Even though many false witnesses came forward, they found 4
none. But at last two false witnesses came forward 61 and said, This fellow said, I am able to destroy the temple of God and to build it in three days. 62 The high priest arose and said to Him, Do You answer nothing? What is it these men testify against You? 63 But Jesus kept silent. The high priest responded to Him, I put You under oath by the living God: Tell us if You are the Christ, the Son of God! Jesus said to him, It s as you said. Nevertheless, I m telling you, you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Power, and (the Power of God will Return) coming on the clouds of heaven. (They all will ultimately acknowledge that the Son of the Almighty GOD is at the right hand of GOD (Dn 7:13-14; Ps 110:1-2), and will carry out all Judgment in the End (Jn 5:26-7; Acts 10:42;17:31). 65 Then the high priest tore his clothes, saying, He has spoken blasphemy! What further need do we have of witnesses? Look, now you have heard His blasphemy! 66 What do you think? They answered and said, He is deserving of death. 67 Then they spat in His face and beat Him; and others struck Him with the palms of their hands. THE GOSPEL TO THE SANHEDRIN See Scriptures above marked with Paul is presumably well prepared for this inquisition before the Council of the Elders of Israel. He is surely well aware that he is about to represent the God they reject, and the Son of God they despise, before this governing body. He knows that it was this Council which passed sentence on Jesus Christ in 30 AD, on Stephen in 34 AD, and now it s his turn. But he also knows his time is not up. There is more to do. This confrontation will not be his last. Acts 23:1 Then Paul, looking earnestly (intently, directly) at the Council, said, Men and brethren [, i.e., andres adelphoi = lit. men, brothers], I have lived in all good conscience before God until this day. 2 And the high priest, Ananias, commanded those who stood by him to strike him on the mouth. It s off to a bad start! Why? This High Priest was appointed in 47 AD (F.F. Bruce in The Book of the ACTS, p 449) by Herod of Chalcis (younger brother of Herod Agrippa 1;[How interesting that a secular leader should appoint the head of the chief religious body?]. Chalcis is the area between Damascus and Tyre-Sidon). He held office for 11-12 years, and was regarded as being very corrupt. Ananias would have some cognitive dissonance ringing in his head hearing Paul say that he, the apostle of Jesus Christ, had no pangs of conscience in his service towards God. How did Paul s conscience differ from that of Ananias, the High Priest, not the Ananias who anointed Paul in Damascus? This high priest was murdered by the Sicarii in seditious atrocities on the Sabbath during Unleavened Bread in 66 AD (Josephus, The Wars, Bk 2, Ch 17). There may be some powerful irony that the Ananias of Damascus was well-known to the priest in Jerusalem: Acts 22:12: a devout man according to the law, having a good testimony with all the Jews who dwelt there.... Hypocrisy seeks vengeance. Integrity seeks hope and reconciliation. PAUL & THE SANHEDRIN Having been struck for his remark notice Paul s response: Acts 23:3-5 Then Paul said to him, God will strike you, you whitewashed wall! For you sit to judge me according to the Law, and do you command me to be struck contrary to the Law? Was Paul wrong in his understanding of the traditions in vogue? Most unlikely! 4 And those who stood by said, Do you revile (loidoreo) God s high priest? 5 Then Paul said, I did not know, brethren, that he was the high priest; for it is written, You shall not speak evil (kakos) of a ruler of your people. Suddenly, pride grips Paul? Has he lost control? We ve not seen this kind of response from him before. 5
Firstly, let s see what the NIV footnotes say about this. Four possible explanations are offered: 1. Paul had poor eyesight (suggested by such passages as Gal 4:15; 6:11 [ you would have torn out your eyes to give them to me ; See what large letters I use as I write to you with my own hand! ] and failed to see that the one who presided was the high priest. 2. He failed to discern that the one who presided was the high priest because on some occasions others had sat in his place. 3. He was using pure irony: A true high priest would not give such an order. 4. He refused to acknowledge that Ananias was the high priest under such circumstances. So what is most likely as a good explanation for his response? It seems that the prophecy by Paul, that God would strike (Gk. tupto: a violent blow) is overlooked. Ananias palace was burnt to the ground and a few days later he was murdered. Did Paul revile the High Priest? Did Paul speak evil of the High Priest? The use of kakos in the N.T. Mt 4:24 Has the first use! His fame went throughout all Syria; and they brought to Him all sick people who were afflicted with various diseases and torments; those who were demonpossessed, epileptics, and paralytics; He healed them all. Mt 8:16 When evening had come, they brought to Him many who were demon-possessed. He cast out the spirits with a word, and healed all who were sick, Mt 9:12 When Jesus heard that, He said to them, Those who are well have no need of a physician, but those who are sick. Sick is kakos in the Greek also in Mt 15:22; 17:15; 21:41; Mk 1:32,34; 2:17; 6:55; Lk 5:31; 7:2. The Gospel of John has a most fascinating usage of this word. Jn 18:19-24 The high priest then asked Jesus about His disciples and His doctrine (Which of course he really wanted to know!). 20 Jesus answered him, I spoke openly to the world. I always taught in synagogues and in the temple, where the Jews always meet, and in secret I have said nothing ( You know what My doctrine is. You know what I teach. What game are you playing, you hypocrite? is the thought and intent here.) 21 Why do you ask Me? Ask those who have heard Me what I said to them. Indeed they know what I said. 22 And when He had said these things, one of the officers who stood by struck Jesus with the palm of his hand, saying, Do You answer the high priest like that? (This rings bells for us, does it not?) 23 Jesus answered him, If I have spoken evil (kakos), bear witness of the evil; but if well, why do you strike Me? 24 Then Annas sent Him bound to Caiaphas the high priest (Which was of course a just and appropriate response!). There is one other use of kakos, in James 4:3, where it speaks of asking in praying but asking amiss. So we must ask ourselves: What evil did Paul express about the high priest? The use of revile (loidoreo) in the N.T. 1Cor 4:12 Being reviled, we bless! 1Pet 2:23 When He was reviled, He did not revile in return. Jn 9:28 Then they (the Pharisees) reviled him (the young man blind from birth, but healed on the Sabbath) and said: You are His disciple, but we are Moses disciples. Who is reviling? Who is telling the truth? Isn t reviling against truth? Did Jesus Christ vehemently verbalize some very uncomplimentary descriptions? Indeed, He did! 6
In Matthew 23 He called the scribes and Pharisees hypocrites, 7 times; murderers of the righteous 4 times (vv 30,31,34,35); as being full of extortion (v 25); unrighteous (v 25); white-washed tombs (v 27); full of hypocrisy and lawlessness (v 28); serpents and brood of vipers (v 33); fools [Gk moroi] and blind (vv 17,19). Were any of these accusations untrue? Yet the same One who did this, i.e., called people fools, said in Mt 5:22: But I say to you that whoever is angry with his brother without a cause [Though not in the original Greek it appears to be implied] shall be in danger of the judgment. And whoever says to his brother, Raca! shall be in danger of the Council. But whoever says, You fool (moros)! shall be in danger of hell fire. How could Christ break the Law of God? Of course, He didn t! He always spoke the Truth! So likewise, each of us, the saints of God, must never curse, speak evil, accuse on the basis of self-opinion, prejudice, dogma, or anger that is without cause. All we say must be entirely true. And truth must also be spoken in love (Eph 4:15). Let s re-read Acts 23:3-5! The seats the Sanhedrin members took would be on the basis of position (Mt 23:5-7). Their dress, especially of the High priest would be distinctive. It would be quite evident right from the beginning as to who was presiding. So what was the nature of Paul s response? Acts 23:6-10 The pack of wolves goes berserk. When Paul perceived that one part were Sadducees and the other Pharisees, he cried out in the Council, Men and brethren, I am a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee; concerning the hope and resurrection of the dead I am being judged! 7 When he had said this, a dissension arose between the Pharisees and the Sadducees; and the assembly was divided. 8 For Sadducees say that there is no resurrection; and no angel or spirit; but the Pharisees confess both. 9 Then there arose a loud outcry. The scribes of the Pharisees party arose and protested, saying, We find no evil in this man; but if a spirit or an angel has spoken to him, let us not fight against God. 10 Now when there arose a great dissension, the commander, fearing lest Paul might be pulled to pieces by them, commanded the soldiers to go down and take him by force from among them, and bring him into the barracks. Paul had exploited their differences! And again, Lysias rescued him! Paul s time is not up as yet! Acts 23:11 Paul is discouraged! He s to go to Rome. But he ll be in prison in Caesarea for another 2 years! Acts 23:12-15 The pack makes a murder pact! The overtones to the end of Christ s experience on earth are similar. Acts 23:16-22 Paul s sister s son (This is the first mention of Paul s relatives as being in the Church) went to Lysias to expose the murder plot and begin a chain of events to get the power of Rome to protect Paul. Acts 23:23-35 An initial force of 470 soldiers was assigned to protect Paul! Was Lysias overreacting! Does this protective action indicate the level of viciousness possibly anticipated from the Jewish authorities? We should note the incomplete truth in his letter to the governor in Caesarea. v31 Antipatris, (which was on the coastal plain, the Shephelah), built by Herod, was about 50km (30 miles) N-W from Jerusalem, more than halfway to Caesarea, which was a coastal 7
city. It was built on the site of the ancient Philistine city, Aphek (1Sam 4:1; 29:1), and was about 30km S-E of Caesarea. From Antipatris only the 70 horsemen escorted Paul. v35 Herod s Praetorium, i.e., the governor s official residence. Antonius Felix was procurator of Judaea from 52-59 AD (see F.F. Bruce s The Book of the ACTS; Eerdmans, 1979; p 462. However, B.H. Warmington s NERO: Reality and Legend; Chatto & Windus, 1981; has the dates 52-60 AD; p 58). The articles, Felix and Festus, in The Illustrated Bible Dictionary; IVP, 1988; cite several sources favouring 59 AD as the end of Felix reign and the beginning of Festus governorship in the Roman capital of Palestine. We may have to conclude that Paul s arrest was in 57 AD (see Acts 24:27). ********************************** In Acts 24 we find the Sanhedrin coming to Caesarea to accuse Paul before Felix, the governor of Judaea. How does Paul cope with prolonged imprisonment and the corruption of Felix? 8