Schultz 1 Jennifer Schultz Bro. Dixon ENG 252 29 October 2011 Altruism Introduction Society promotes independence over dependence, success at all costs, and an anything goes mentality. Some may believe that acts of charity and selfless service cannot exist with society s dog eat dog mantra. However, as various media outlets show, our culture still values altruism 1. But in our day of extremes, a new kind of altruism has been recognized. Scientists are dubbing this new trend in altruism pathological. The theory behind pathological altruism is that the supposed altruist gives until it hurts the benefactor, but the attempted altruist isn t aware that his or her actions are harming the recipient. This recently realized category of altruism raises an intriguing definitional issue: What is true selfless service? Lines between an act committed with the hope of reciprocity in mind and an act focused on a righteous objective rather than the act s recipient are blurry. After giving an overview of altruism, this research paper intends to explore four kinds of altruism--pathological altruism, reciprocal altruism, indirect reciprocal altruism, and what I term gospel-centered altruism to clarify the lines between each and motivate society to choose the best kind of altruism available. 1 Merriam-Webster s Online Dictionary defines altruism in two ways: unselfish regard for or devotion to the welfare of others and behavior by an animal that is not beneficial to or may be harmful to itself but that benefits others of its species.
Schultz 2 Altruism Our genes are said to be naturally selfish: Evolution fashioned genes that do whatever it takes to survive (Harman 312). However, just because one has selfish genes, this does not at once imply that one has selfish people (Ruse 249). Darwinian ethics accounts for the evolutionary growth of altruism by calling it an adaptation included under the general social adaptation called morality (Ruse 254). However, psychologist Daniel Goleman, suggests a more psychological approach to altruism. Research has been done, he says, that shows when we see someone else in distress, similar circuits reverberate in our brain (60). He calls it a kind of hardwired empathic resonance that becomes the prelude to compassion (60). Cognitive scientist Michael Tomasello argues for a social explanation for selfless acts of service. Mutualism, he says, is the star player, in which we all benefit from our cooperation but only if we work together, what we may call collaboration (52). Researcher Dale Peterson summarizes mutualism as overtly selfish cooperation (198). Regardless, achieving an immediate or long-term physical, emotional, social, or so-called moral goal can help ensure the survival of all the individual s genes who participate. Whether called evolutionary morality, psychological compassion, or cognitive mutualism, science agrees that altruism is an attribute that reaches far back into history and across species. Non-human Examples of Altruism Research on animal behavior has shown consistent deference to altruism in crisis situations. Goleman reports that when a laboratory rat is suspended in the air by a harness, another rat, witnessing the first rat s struggles and screeches, will become upset too and will choose to lower the victim by pressing a bar in the cage (54). Dale Peterson cites two instances in his book, The Moral Lives of Animals, of two older chimpanzees risking their lives to save
Schultz 3 younger chimps who accidentally fall into water; old or young, chimpanzees cannot swim (221). Pain and risking death are obviously consequences to be avoided, but the rat and chimpanzees drew themselves nearer to those consequences in order to help their distressed species-members. Goleman relates another experiment conducted with rhesus monkeys that captures the lengths that non-humans have been shown to go to perform an act of service for someone else, even at their own detriment: Six rhesus monkeys have been trained to pull chains to get food. At one point a seventh monkey, in full view of the others, gets a painful shock whenever one of them pulls for food. On seeing the pain of that shocked monkey, four of the original rhesus monkeys start pulling a different chain, one that delivers less food to them but that inflicts no shock on the other monkey. The fifth monkey stops pulling any chain at all for five days, and the sixth for twelve days that is, both starve themselves to prevent shocking the seventh monkey. (55) There are many more accounts recorded of animal altruism, within the same species and across species. There are perhaps even more recorded accounts of human altruism. Human Examples of Altruism Donating one s organ for the benefit of scientific research or to save another human s life is an example of human altruism. Humans, unlike their animal counterparts, are understood to have a level of conscious thought that animals are unable to attain. This consciousness allows us to understand the far-reaching consequences of our actions. Using our agency to knowingly put our names on an organ donor list for the benefit of people we may never even meet is a choice that non-humans don t have access to. Organ donations are proof that humans don t use mere distance to calibrate charity (Berreby 193).
Schultz 4 Humans pay each other salaries for putting their altruistic intentions on the line. Fire fighters, police officers, life guards, soldiers, medical personnel, and teachers perform services for our communities with proportionately little compensation. In fact, some, if not all, of these occupations involve significant risks to the professional s life. But society is founded on these core jobs that benefit the majority at risk to the one. It is one of these selfless professions that is the main subject of Natalie Angier s article called The Pathological Altruist Gives Till Someone Hurts. Pathological Altruism Pathological altruism is a relatively new scientific definition given to those who give until it hurts. In a New York Times article that focuses on the upcoming scholarly compilation on pathological altruism, titled Pathological Altruism (Oxford Press), reporter Natalie Angier discusses its definition: As the new book makes clear, pathological altruism is not limited to showcase acts of self-sacrifice, like donating a kidney or a part of one s liver to a total stranger. The book is the first comprehensive treatment of the idea that when ostensibly generous how can I help you? behavior is taken to extremes, misapplied or stridently rhapsodized, it can become unhelpful, unproductive and even destructive. Angier goes on to relate that selflessness gone awry may play a role in a broad variety of disorders, including anorexia and animal hoarding, women who put up with abusive partners and men who abide alcoholic ones. There are obvious points of controversy with categorizing an organ donor as a pathological altruist. But this topic is applicable to our society as it recognizes another
Schultz 5 extreme in our largely hedonistic culture. Scientists of various fields have confirmed that altruism is either an evolutionary or a psychological advantage within an interdependent community. Now, it seems, the scientific community is discovering the potential opposite of Darwinism that gene survival is the dominant unconscious reason behind our altruistic actions in pathological altruism. Genetically speaking, it is not helpful to an individual who develops anorexia or animal hoarding. An individual with these assumed pathological traits can experience physical and social repercussions that leave them with a significantly reduced chance of reproducing and, therefore, passing on their genes. Extreme Pathological Altruism Suicide terrorists may be grouped into this new category of pathological altruism; they are, in fact, motivated by altruism. The more a person values his community, the more likely he is to kill himself for the sake of the community (Pape 175). A person committing suicide gives up the successful propagation of his or her genes for the selfless good of the community. Though the suicide terrorist has given what he believed to be the best service to his community, his act of pathological altruism may hurt his close family members, extended relations, or even, eventually, the community he sought to serve if there is a retaliation sparked by the suicide terrorist s selfless act. 2 Reciprocal Altruism Though pathological altruism is making the most recent scientific headlines, scientists have judged that most cases of altruism are actually better termed reciprocal altruism 3. Whether the altruist consciously is aware of it or not, scientists say that any act of selfless service to an 2 The male pronoun he was used throughout this sentence for ease of reading. Suicide terrorists can and have been females as well. 3 Anthropologist Robert L. Trivers coined the term reciprocal altruism in the 1970s (Berreby 311).
Schultz 6 individual in or outside one s gene pool is done with unconscious hopes of reciprocity. This social game of reciprocity can positively affect the survival and continuation of one s genes. The reciprocity game, however, has to meet certain conditions in order for it to be successful to participants. For people to live by exchanges of self-sacrifice, they must: 1. Have frequent contact 2. Act differently toward a cheater 3. Keep track of which actions belong to which actor (Berreby 311-12). Animals are completely capable of participating in this equal exchange of so-called selfless service. African hunting dogs occasionally attack a group member who has been withholding his or her acts of selfless group service (Harman 205). Vampire bats regurgitate the blood they have hunted from mammals and share it with hungry kin and non-kin bats in hopes that when they are in need the same courtesy will be performed for them (Peterson 205). Primates groom each other as a literal example of reciprocity (Peterson 207). Humans put into any group or team co-workers in an office setting, group members in a college setting, and even preschoolers in a classroom setting play this same reciprocity game. It is because of the universal presence of this game that T.V. shows like The Office 4 and the game show Survivor 5 have been successful. Humans are aware of reciprocal altruism whether they have a name for it or not. You scratch my back, I ll scratch yours doesn t apply just to primates grooming habits, but has become the unofficial, unstated rule to human interaction. Indirect Reciprocal Altruism There is a sub-category of reciprocal altruism that may just be the closest thing to pure altruism possible. Biologist Richard D. Alexander suggests an indirect reciprocal altruism. 4 The Office reached 9.2 million viewers in the 2008-2009 season. 5 Survivor reached 29.8 million viewers in the January to May 2001 game located in the Australian Outback.
Schultz 7 Indirect reciprocal altruism provides a possible explanation for why a soldier would die for an unrelated comrade, leaving his children fatherless (313). He says, the soldier s emotions of loyalty and his care for his reputation among his comrades can come to count for me than his genetic stake (313). A reputation of loyalty and selfless love, no matter how great, does not increase the chances of that soldier s genes to continue in even more children. However, the standard of moral adaptation set by the reasons for the soldier-father s death can be learned, internalized, and carried on for generations. Alexander s indirect reciprocal altruism, then, has more to do with socio-emotional or psychological traits being passed on rather than genes. Gospel-Centered Altruism Jesus Christ, the Church s exemplar and Head, went about doing good but with an indirectly reciprocal purpose (Acts 10:38). He healed sicknesses, leprosy, issues of blood, and lameness; He gave sight to the blind; He even raised a man and young girl from the dead. While none of these benefitted Christ from a genetic standpoint, He has already spoken for the reasons behind his miracles and interactions with the people, When ye have lifted up the Son of man, then shall ye know that I am he, and that I do nothing of myself; but as my Father hath taught me, I speak these things (John 8:28, emphasis added). Though He genuinely loved and cared for the people as selflessly as only a man of direct divine lineage could, Christ could not escape the temporal and spiritual blessings the Father has promised to all His children through the plan of happiness. Some people perform acts of service solely to merit these promised blessings. Others perform acts of service in order to be obedient to the Master s invitation to feed [his] sheep (John 21:16). And others perform acts of service with only God s glory in mind. Sought for or not, the gospel of Jesus Christ is built on our being blessed by our Father for every act of altruism we perform.
Schultz 8 We Are Unprofitable Servants In the Book of Mormon, King Benjamin addresses his people shortly before his death. He recounts the service he has given to his people as their king and also as a servant of God. King Benjamin imparts two invaluable lessons on altruism. One part of his wisdom reads, And behold, I tell you these things that ye may learn wisdom; that ye may learn that when ye are in the service of your fellow beings ye are only in the service of your God (Mosiah 2:17). Though King Benjamin was speaking to faithful believers of Christ, this theological principle can be applied to any act of service. The prophet-historian Moroni explains why this is true, And whatsoever thing is good is just and true; wherefore, nothing that is good denieth the Christ, but acknowledgeth that he is (Moro. 10:6). This inescapable cycle of service glorifying God is the central point of King Benjamin s second invaluable lesson on altruism: I say unto you that if ye should serve him who has created you from the beginning, and is preserving you from day to day, by lending you breath, that ye may live and move and do according to your own will, and even supporting you from one moment to another I say, if ye should serve him with all your whole souls yet ye would be unprofitable servants. (Mosiah 2:21) No man, woman, or child can escape the eternal blessings merited by altruistic acts. But that does not mean we should have an eye single to that desired blessing. Jesus Christ Himself has shared what the true motivator of service should be, Every man seeking the interest of his neighbor should do all things with an eye single to the glory of God (D&C 82:19). That is true selfless service. That is the eternal meaning of the word altruism.
Schultz 9 Conclusion Altruism is in intrinsic part of humanity because it has eternal origins. It is integrated in not only individuals but interconnected societies as well. Altruism is not only a possible evolutionary advantage, but it also follows the restored gospel plan. To be better disciples of Jesus Christ, we should study and practice selfless acts of service with an eye single to the glory of God.
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