SoumWESTERNJOURNAL OF THEOLOGY i }. t The Sadducean Pesecution of the Chistians in Rome and Jeusalem, A.D. 58 to 65 1 By the time of Paul's aival in Jeusalem in A.D. 57 o 58,2 James, the bothe of Jesus, was at the head of a congegation of many thousands, all zealous fo the Law (Acts 21:20). James was concened that Paul's eputation that he had taught Jews in the diaspoa to ignoe the Law, to give up cicumcising thei sons, and geneally to adopt a Geek way of life would cause difficulties. He asked him to undetake the suppot of cetain men unde Nazaite vows. Paul ageed, but James' feas wee ealized anyway when cetain Jews fom Asia (pehaps fom Ephesusp ecognized Paul and accused him of teaching against the Jews, thei law, and thei temple, and finally of taking Geeks into the inne couts of the temple, beyond! the waning signs fobidding this. A iot ensued and Paul was saved fom the mob by the commande of the cohot, and bought the next day befoe the Sanhedin. Thee he had his fist confontation with the high piest, whom Paul called a whitewashed wall. This was Ananias, son of Nededaeus, high piest fom ' '. " j l ~, c. 48 to c. 59. 4 The Sanhedin was stymied by a debate between the Phaisees and the Sadducees ove the question of the esuection of the dead, one of the cental diffeences between the two sects. Befoe the heaing could continue, the commande of the cohot emoved Paul to Caesaea because of a epot of an assassination plot. In Caesaea, Paul was bought to tial befoe Felix, the bothe of Pallas, one of the most poweful feedmen in Rome in the eign of Claudius. Pallas was still alive, and pehaps still in- I The autho wishes to thank Pofesso E. Eale Ellis fo his invaluable advice and fequent encouagement, 1 A late date seems pefeable to 55, that suggested by E. Haenchen, The Acts ofthe Apostles: a Commentay (Oxfod: Basil Blackwell, 1971), 71. A. J. M. Weddebun, "Some Recent Pauline ChonolOgies." Expositoy Times 92:4 (1981), 103-8; M. Hengel, Acts ami the Histoy ofealiest Chistianity (Philadelphia: Fotess Pess, 1980), 137. E. Schue, The Histoy ofthe Jewish People in the Age ofjesus Chist, ev. cd. (Edinbugh: T. & T. Clak, 1973l, I:466 n.42 dates Paul's impisonment in Caesaea fom ;6 to 58, o moe likely 57 to 59 with Felix's ecall in 60. 'E J. Foakes-Jackson and Kisopp Lake, The Beginnings of Chistianity, Pat I: The Acts ofthe Apostles (London: :\-lacmillan, 1920-1933l, 1:150. 'E. M. Smallwood, "High Piests and Politics in Roman Palestine," Jounal of Theological Studies, new seies, 13:1 (1962), 32; and Haenchen, The Acts of the Apostles, 637 n,6. I fluential,5 Felix was maied to Dusilla, younge siste of Agippa II and Benice, and the only Heodian With any powe in Judea, except fo Agippa's contol of the Temple pecinct. The Sanhedin hied a heto named Tetullus to handle the posecution. The high piest and cetain eldes made the tip to Caesaea to indicate the impotance they attached to the matte. Despite this, Felix efused to be pushed into a decision, Felix adjouned the heaing to obtain futhe evidence, pehaps anticipating a bibe to elease Paul (Acts 24:25), Thee may have been othe easons. Wee thee enough Chistians in Caesaea that a iot seemed likely if he acceded to the posecutoial demands? We may also wonde if pehaps Felix was intigued by the possibility of a Judaism without the sepaatism inheent in the Law. 6 Paul's case emained in suspense fo two yeas while he "\\-'as kept in pison, A new pocuato, Festus, was appointed, who likewise efused to conclude the matte. He sent Paul to Rome. Wbethe this was in the natue of a fomal appeal o of a tansfe of juisdiction cannot be detemined on the evidence available. 7 John Ensminge, LL.M, is an attoney and wite living in New Yok City. He is the edito of the jounal Taxation fo Law yes. His eseach inteests include society and eligion in the f!ist centuy. He is cu ently woking on a histoical novel on the Chistians in Rome duing the eign of Neo. It seems likely that despite Paul's appeal, Festus could have dealt with the matte had he wished. Whateve factos deteed Felix fom making a decision still obtained fo Festus. In Rome, Paul emained unde house aest fo two yeas and ou pincipal souce leaves us (Acts 28:30-31), The length of the impisonment is not so exteme if Josephus is coect in descibing his own visit to Rome when he was twenty-six, theefoe in 63 o 64, to obtain the elease of piests who wee aested by Felix, which would mean pio to the pocuato's depatue fom office in 60,8 An angel 'E. M. Smalhvood, The Jeu)s Unde Roman Rule (I.eiden: E. J. Bill, 1981), 271 n.46. 'Such inteest is only identifiable late, M. Simon, l1?us Isael, (Oxfod: Oxfod Univesity Pess, 1986), 101, but Felix was in an ideal position to see the development. 7F. Milla, The Empeo in the Roman Wold (I.ondon: Duckwoth, 1977), :Hl. 'But see Smallwood, Jews Unde Roman Rule, 281 n.84, suggesting that Josephus meant Albinus, not Felix. Against the theoy that unposecuted pisones would be automatically eleased afte two yeas, see A. N. Shewin-White, Roman Society ami Rnman Law in tbe New Testament (Oxfod: Oxfod Univesity Pess, 1963), 112. 9
SOL"THWESTERNJOURNAL OF THEOIOGY had announced to Paul on the jouney to Rome that he would appea befoe the empeo, yet we have no ecod of a poceeding (Acts 27:24). Cetainly the Jews would have pessed the matte had they been given the oppotunity. Did they have the oppotunity? We must conside Ishmael, high piest fom pehaps 59 to 61. 9 He aived in Rome pobably 61 o 62, 10 pehaps emaining thee as late as 65 o even late, along with Helcias, a teasuy guad o temple captain, and ten fist men Oosephus, Antiquities 20.194). This goup eceived the favo of Poppaea, eithe afte he maiage to Neo (A.D. 62), o close enough to it that she had the effective powe of an impeial wife. The delegation had been sent by Festus because of a dispute with Agippa concening the heightening of the wall aound the inne couts of the temple, which the piests had undetaken in ode to block Agippa's view of the inne cout, whee the sacifices took place. Agippa had built onto the Hasmonean Palace, which adjoined the temple to the west, so as to give himself this view, pesumably fo entetainment. Could the delegation of twelve have pusued the posecution of Paul in Rome? The fist poblem is chonological. It is doubtful Poppaea's powe could have been geat enough to outweigh that of Agippina's befoe he assassination in 59. In fact, it has been suggested that Poppaea's favoing of the delegation may have esulted fom esentment of Agippina's fiendship with the Heodian family. Theefoe, those dating Paul's impisonment in the mid- to late-50s must pesumably eject any Roman connection between Paul and IshmaeL The next poblem is pocedual. Could a delegation aiving fom Jeusalem have aised a seconday issue, the unesolved status of Paul's case? Since the embassy was ganted by Festus fo the piests to pesent thei agument against Agippa's viewing of the sacifices, it would seem that the extaneous issue of Paul's posecution could only be aised by expess pemission of the empeo. 11 Howeve, the success of the mission on its cental issue would likely have been eflected in ganting a equest of much less political concen to Neo. Cetainly, if the conviction of Paul still matteed to the piestly hieachy, the pesence of such distinguished witnesses was impotant in the effective posecution of the case. Theefoe, it seems pobable that the posecution of Paul could have been esumed in Rome, with the suppot and testimony of the Jewish delegation, in 61 o 62. 1 Clem. 5.2 tells us only that Paul was pusued because of zeal and jealousy and that he gave his testimony befoe the ules (matuesas epi ton 'Haenchen, 665 n.2, to the effect that Ishmael was nominated by Agippa in the pocuatoship of Felix, which Haenchen teminates in 55. Smallwood, "High Piests and Politics," 32. IOSmallwood, Jews Unde the Roman Rule, 279 n.80. lif. Milla, Empeo in Roman Wold, 169. egoumenon).12 We cannot, of couse, go much futhe in ou speculation. IfHaenchen is coect in supposing that Paul was convicted and executed, 13 pehaps something is added to his agument if one supposes that such an effective delegation pessed fo Paul's conviction. This model of killing Paul as a matte of political appeasement of the Jews - cannot be used if the death of Paul is agued to occu much late. Afte the outbeak of the evolt in 66, any posecution would have had to be fo puely Roman consideations. The dispute emains as to what happened as a esult of the tial. The apocyphal acts ae lagely fictional, but pehaps coect in suggesting that Paul was beheaded. 14 The embassy to Neo of twelve leading membes of the Jeusalem hieachy, pehaps most if not all of them piests, has occasioned supisingly little comment in modem scholaship. At a time when Paul and pehaps Pete wee in contact with the Jewish communities thee, it could have had a Significant effect on the ealy debates at the synagogues concening the Chistian message. Paul's lette to Rome pesupposes divisions in the eceiving commllllity as to the impotance of continuing adheence to the Law. It may explain why ealy suppot and inteest of the Roman Jews (Acts 28:17-22) evapoated by the time of tial. IS The delegation is not likely to have confined itself to political appeaances befoe the empeo and attendance on the impeial consot. The piests must have also become a focus of attention fo Roman Jews. A passage of Plutach may be impotant in this connection: When (the Jews) celebate thei so-called Fast, at the height of the vintage, they set out tables of all sots offuit unde tents and huts plaited fo the most pat of vines and ivy. They call the fist of the two days Tabenacles. A few days late they celebate anothe festi\'al...in which they ente the temple each caying a thysus.., (T)hey use little tumpets.... Othes of them advance playing haps: these playes ae called in thei language Levites... The Jews... keep the Sabbath by inviting each othe to dink and to enjoy wine; when moe impotant business intefees with this custom, they egulaly take at least a sip of neat wine... (T)he High Piest... leads the po "2 Tim. 4:17 may indicate that Paul escaped fom ~eo. the lion's mouth, M. Dibelius and H. ComdlllllD.Il. The Pastoal Epistles, (Philadelphia: Fotess Pess, 19"'2). 124.].~. D. Kelly. Commentay on the Pa$.t01'al Epistles (London: A. & C. Black. 1963), 219. I3Conzelmann. Acts, 732. 14M. R. James, The Apocyphal New Testament (Oxfod: Oxfod L'nivesity Pess, 1924), 295. "C. H. Dodd, The Epistle of Paul to tbe Romans (London: Hodde & Stoughton, 1954), xxix, concening 2 Tim. 4:16. The zeal and stife of which Clement speaks should not be esticted to the Chistian community alone, no seen as being stictly between Jews and Chistians. The boundaies wee not nealy so pecise yet. D. W. O'Conno, P!te in Rome (New Yok: Columbia Univesity Pess, 1969). 81 n.157. 10
SOUTHWESTERNJOURNAL OF THEOLOGY cession at thei festival weaing a mite and clad in gold-emboideed fawnskin, a obe eaching to the ankles, and buskins, with many bells attached to his clothes and inging below him as he walks. 16 In his billiant discussion of Judaism in the Geco-Roman wold, Lightstone discusses this passage. 17 The desciption may be a flawed account of temple pactices in jeusalem, o of the temple of Onias at Leontopolis in Egypt. Noting the absence of efeence to sacifice, Lightstone also aises the intiguing possibility that it could also be an account of synagogue pactice. He notes Paul's encounte with the jewish exocists at Ephesus, sons of the achieeus Sceva. This may suggest a kind of synagogue piesthood in Asia, 18 o may only indicate that the exocists tavelled fom judea. An additional possibility may be that the account is that of a delegation of piests, pehaps even the one we ae discussing. 19 Pehaps the piests celebated the Feast of Tabenacles in Rome, taking those aspects of the litugy which did not equie the temple. The size of the delegation may also be significant. Is it possible the Sadducean code may have specified cetain pocedues which equied the pesence of ten piests, just as the Mishnah equies the pesence of ten fo paye (M.Meg. 4.3)?2 Poppaea etained the high piest and the teasuy guad as hostages afte the mission accomplished its pupose, pehaps to dete any misuse of the pivilege of pivacy.21 Though we may doubt the depth and chaacte of Poppaea's theosebia (Antiquities 20.195), we may also suspect she found thei pactices appealing enough to etain them fo thei continued decoation. Some difficulty with the length of thei etention must be seen in josephus, failue to mention them in connection with his own visit to Rome in 64, whee he had gone to obtain the elease of cetain piests. 22 16Q. Conv. 4:671c. Loeb tanslation (pp. 363-65), deleting the discussion wheeby the Jewish litugy is "poven" to be elated to Dionysus. The desciption is given by Moegenes, who, accoding to a footnote to the text, is othewise unknown unless to be identified with that individual who is attibuted with a life of Apollonius of Tyana by Philostatus, Vito Ap. 1:3, III:41. 17]. ~. Lightstone, The Comme:e ofthe Saced, Bown JudaiC Studies No. 59 (Chico, Calif.: Scholas Pess, 1984), 99. "D. Geogi also agues fo a non-palestinian piesthood. The Opponents ofpaul In Second Cointhians (Philadelphia: Fotess Pess, 1986). 91 n.77. 19P1utach could have head the account in Rome, which he might have visited in the eign of Vespasian. D. A. Russell. Plutach (London: Duckwoth, 1972), 7.,oG. Kittel, ed., Theological Dictionay ofthe New Testament, II:36 on "deka," (Gand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eedmans Pub. Co.,. 1,-\,8). T. Rajak sees the numbe as a eflection of a standad political umt fo an embassy, josephus: The Histoian and His Society (Philadelphia: Fotess Pess, 1983),40. Schiffman suggests that the numbe may indicate the size of a govening body ofjeusalem and the temple. L. H. Schiffman, Sectaian Law in the Dead Sea Scolls, Bown Judaic Studies (Chico. Calif.: Scholas Pess, 1983),24. He also notes the numbe's significance in tems of fomal meals, 196. "Smallwood, Jews Unde Roman Rule, 278. "T. Rajak,Josephus (London: Duckwoth, 1983),39. See the maginal notes of the Loeb tanslation of Josephus, Vita 86, p. 7. Schue, 1:466 na2 gives the date as 63/64, See Lake, The Beginning., V:321. Rajak is likely coect in ejecting the suggestion that josephus was tying to obtain the elease of Ishmael and Helcias. josephus indicates that he was intoduced to Poppaea though a jewish acto ofwhom Neo was fond, named AlituuS. 23 Pehaps josephus makes no mention of the piests because they could not, in this instance, be influential. It is even possible that the aested piests wee among thei opponents. It may not be accidental that at Antiquities 20.180, immediately afte mentioning the appointment of Ishmael as high piest, josephus descibes the incease in enmity between the high piests and the leades of the populace. Ishmael, the high piest, pobably died in Cyene about 73 (Bj 6.114), Had Ishmael etuned to judea befoe the outbeak of the evolt, afte Poppaea's death in 65, he might have been expected to have been settled in one of the pacified aeas of Galilee. A late tadition holds that Titus settled 30,000 jews in Punic teitoy afte the evolt. 24 Pehaps Ishmael did not leave Rome until 66 o 67, afte the evolt had boken out. If Ishmael and Helcias emained in Rome though 65, they would have been at cout when Poppaea boe a daughte and then lost he. Moeove, they would have been at cout when the fie boke out, fo which the Chistians wee blamed. Poppaea has been implicated in this pesecution. 25 Ifthis connection is made, it is but a small step to suggest that the membes of the jewish delegation, who may be supposed to have discussed divegent foms of judaism with the empess, could have been esponsible fo the idea. 26 The difficulty of explaining the eason the Chistians wee blamed fo the fie has long been ecognized. 27 We must account fo the fact that duing the eign of Neo thee seems to have been sufficient infomation about the Chistians to distinguish them fom jews, wheeas thity yeas late, unde Domitian, no such distinction was made. 28 The numbe of Chistians must have been consideably geate by the time of Domitian. The influence of the jeusalem piests on Poppaea is the most cedible explanation. Let us etun to the death ofjames, the bothe of ""Without a doubt an apostate, even if he ettined enough national consciousness to befiend Josephus." Smallwood, Jews Unde Roman Rule, 281 n.84. 24M. Simon, \Ii>us Isael. 303 n.160. "J. Beaujeu, L'lncendie de Rome et les ehetiens (Bussels: Collection l.atomus xlix, 1960), 40. '6The suggestion has unfotunately been seen as eflecting modem anti-semitism. J. ]. Leon, The Jews of Ancient Rome (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1960),28 n.z. What should be obseved is (1) the Sadducees wee in the midst of stife which ",-as apidly eoding thei powe and they could be expected to eact in such a way as to attempt to peseve that powe, and (2) they may have only planted the idea of blaming the Chistians by descibing thei fiey apocalyptic desciptions. "v. M. Scamuzza, "The Policy of the Ealy Roman Empeos towads Judaism," K. Lake, The Beginnings V: 296-97, suggests that the blame was deflected fom thejews onto the Chistians with the help of Poppaea and Alituus. "Simon, 117. 11
SOUTHWESTERNJOURNAL OF THEOlOGY jesus, and othe leades (pehaps induding john the son of Zebedee 29 ) of the Chistians. 30 They may have been chaged with blasphemy. The pesecution happened in the administative hiatus between the death of Festus and the aival of Albinus. The pepetato is Ananus, a piest josephus paises fo his conduct in the wa.31 Yet hee, josephus seems to feel that the action was extaodinay and that the eplacement of Ananus was incumbent upon Agippa. 32 Evidently, thee was sufficient opposition to Ananus that his continued authoity could be a theat to the peace. That the Phaisees wee involved in this must mean that the majoity of the nation had tuned against Ananus. 33 Nevetheless, josephus may have also seen the emoval of Ananus fom the high piesthood as one of the factos that hastened the descent into evolution. 34 The event took place in 62 and was connected even in antiquity to Pau]35 (Eusebius 2.23.1-11, citing Hegessipus). That is, it may have happened because james had not denounced Paul, o pehaps because he had accepted an offeing fom the Pauline congegations, with this being seen as a deogation of the temple tax. 36 In the pseudo-clementine Recognitions, c. 70, Paul is depicted as Simon Magus, whose mission is given by the opponents of james as poof of the flawed natue of the Chistian message. 37 S. G. F. Bandon 38 speculated that james may have become a champion of the lesse piests in thei disputes with the chief piests, and that this is eflected in the late depictions of james as a piest o high piest. One of the pincipal exponents ofthe suppession of the lesse piests was Ishmael, though he was to have been in Rome at the time of the pesecution 29F. F. Buce, Pete, Stepben, james and john (Gand Rapids: Wm. B. Eedmans Pub. Co., 1979), 137; M. Hengel, Studies in tbe Gospel of Mak (London: SCM Pess, 1985), 13 n.80. "w. A. Beadslee ejects the account in Hegessipus as legenday, Intepete's Bible Dictionay'(New Yok: Abingdon, 1962),2:794. B. Reicke. "judaeo-chistianity and the Jewish establishment, A.D. 33-66." in E. Bammel and C. F. D. Moule, ed.jesus and tbe Politics ofhis Day (Cambidge: Cambidge Univesity Pess, 1984), 146. JiRajak, 106. "Bandon. "The Death ofjames the just: a New Intepetation," in Studies in Mysticism and Religion pesented to Geshom G. Scbolem (Jeusalem: Magnes Pess, 1967), 57-69. On page 63, Bandon says that Josephus is "cuiously neutal about the whole affai." suggesting that this neutality is occasioned by a combination of me belief that james was innocent with the late admiation fo Ananus' conduct in the wa. 33That the Phaisees wee moe political than is geneally acknowledged and that they epesented the majoity of Palestinian jews is well agued by G. Alon, jews, judaism and the Classical Wold (Jeusalem: Magnes Pess, 1977). "Bandon, id., suggests mat an alteation of the text of josephus may explain why Oigen believed that the death of james me just was the cause of the evolt and the consequent destuction. "J. L. Matyn, The Gospel ofjobn in Cbistian Histoy: Essays fo Intepetes (New Yok: Paulist Pess, 1978), 144. "This is not to say that the Chistian community in Jeusalem had not suffeed. 1 Thess. 2:14-15, H. Conzelmann, Histoy of Pimitive Cbistianity (New Yok: Abingdon, 1973), Ill. "See discussion of J. L. Matyn, The Gospel ofjohn, 61-62. "jesus and tbe Zealots (New Yok: Chales Scibnes' Sons, 1967), 125. of james. 39 Bandon agued that james had been looked to as one who might help quiet the people, but who instead heightened messianic expectations. 40 That the Sadducees wee likely to have opposed the Chistians is not supising; they wee an embattled goup in the decade pio to the evolution. A mee list of conflicts which concened them is impessive. (1) Phaisaic opposition to the Sadducean penal code. 4! (2) Fiction between factions of high piests. Antiquities 20.214. (3) Conflicts with odinay piests. Tosefta Menahot xiii, 21; B, T. Pesahim 57a. (4) Conflict between piests and Levites. Antiquities 20.214. (5) Geneal conflict between ich and poo. Antiquities 20.219. 42 IneVitably, thee was continuing fiction with Geeks, Romans, and Samaitans. The agument pesented hee does not enhance the theoy that the Chistians took pat in the evolt of 66 to 70. Thee is at least one tadition that suggests that afte the death of james, the jeusalem community divided into factions in any case (Eusebius 4.22.5). No can the Pella tadition establish a unitay Chistian esponse to the evolt,43 even ifthe tadition is accepted. The fevo of evolt undoubtedly swept many along in spite of thei bette judgment. Conclusions The Sadducean position was one of esistance to social and eligious change, to popula movements, and geneally to the foces eoding thei authoity. They could not stop the tend, but they could single out cetain stands within thei opposition. The Chistians wee attacked in this way. 44 While the infomation is lacking to do moe than hypothesize concening the continued posecution of Paul in Rome, it seems likelv that the high piests -would have caied thei pol~mical stance towad Chistians to Rome. Thee they would have influenced the jewish community, as well as Poppaea. The Chistians had emained close to the synagogue in Rome and wee vulneable to the attack. The stife which Clement says killed Pete and Paul began. Ishmael and Helcias emained at coun. Though 39Pesahlm 57a, cited in Small"uod,jeu's f.:nde Roman Rule, 28. 4 5. G. F. Bandon, The Fall ofjeusatem and the Chistian Cbuch (London: SPCK, 19'''8), 95-99. 41]. jeemias, jeusalem in tbe Time of jesus (Philadelphia: Fotess Pess, 1969), 264 n.60. "Pehaps bandity is to be listed hee. Rajak,josepbus. p. 123 on the causes of bandity. "G. Ludemann, "The Successos of pe-70 Jesualem Chistianity: A Citical Evaluation of the Pella Tadition," in E. P. Sandes, ed., jewish and Chistian Set/Definition, vol. 1 (Philadelphia: Fotess Pess, 1980). «Pehaps this explains the significant numbe of efeences in the New Testament to achieeis, as opposed to mention of a single high piest. TWNT, Ill:271. 12
~ f 1 b SOUTHWESTERN JOIJRNAL OF THEOWGY Josephus efes to them as hostages, they wee pobably honoed spiitual advises to Poppaea. When Neo needed someone to blame fo the fie, Poppaea could have mentioned what the piests had said about the apocalpytic expectations of the Chistians. Pehaps even the piests saw the oppotunity to cleanse the Jewish community of an element peceived as dangeous. A numbe of hypotheses in the chain of cause and effect can be developed hee, but that the Sadducean high piests wee an impotant link in that chain is becoming hade to deny. The pesecution of the Chistians fom A.D. 58 to A.D. 65 was pat of the Sadducees' last effot to etain contol of thei wold. d Ie le 'e e n- Baptists in Ameica: fis ot >le he nd '01 of ists t7~ Yea50f National Oganization ""as W, ing Apil 25-26, 1989 ict tiey t:be lei day :hat i and e SUS, TO obtain complete infomation on the meet ing, including a esevation fom and details on how to puchase the published papes pe sented at the meeting, wite the Histoical Com mission, SBC, 901 Commece St., Suite 400, Nashville, TN 37203. of )hn tim ob, ed" ist, g of tfte ices ned,did l'2l'y, )Ca, :ohn letafuit 'Wed eed ;' Joint Annual Meeting of the Histoical Commission, SBC, the Southen Baptist Histoical society 13