The role of young researchers in academic life and society (Research ethics and integrity) Young Researchers School on Research Methodology in Comparative Social Security Ljubljana, 7 June 2016 Janez Kranjc
What is ethics?* Ethics (ἠθικός moral, of or for morals, expressing character; from ἦθος - character, moral nature) or moral philosophy tries to define, systematize, defend, and recommend concepts of right and wrong behavior. *An overview based upon James Fieser s article on Ethics in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Three aspects of ethics: Metaethics investigates the meaning and origin of our ethical principles, especially where do they come from, and what they mean (are they our inventions, universal truths, products of human reason, the will of God etc.). Normative ethics endeavors to formulate ethical standards und the rules regulating right and wrong conduct, and its consequences. Applied ethics examines specific controversial moral issues, such as environmental issues, sexual orientation, abortion etc.
Terminology - Ethics v. morals The same etymology: ἦθος, mos custom, habit. Until the 17th century used interchangeably. Nowadays they are often used with different meaning: Ethics refer to rules provided by an external source, e.g., professional codes of conduct. Morals refer to individual s own principles regarding right and wrong. There can be a conflict between (professional) ethics and (individual) morals: - a doctor may personally approve euthanasia, but it is contrary to his professional ethics; - a lawyer believes that a murderer must be punished; however, his professional ethics requires that he defends him even if he knows he is guilty. The problem of morality of professional ethics.
The question of metaethics: are moral values eternal truths or human conventions. Other-worldly origin: moral values are objective and exist beyond subjective human conventions. They are absolute, eternal, they never change, they are universal and independent of time and place applying to all rational creatures. Moral relativism: moral values are human inventions and have no objective status.
Individual relativism - individual people create their own moral standards (e. g. Friedrich Nietzsche s superhuman (Übermensch) creating his own morality distinct from the morality of masses). Cultural relativism - morality is shaped by the society. Moral values change from culture to culture, from society to society, and from time to time (e. g. homosexuality, polygamy, euthanasia etc.).
Why be moral? Why should I be a moral person? Various reasons: to avoid punishment, to gain praise, to attain happiness, etc. Egoism and Altruism Psychological egoism: self-oriented interests motivate human actions. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): our actions are prompted by selfish desires, even if they look selfless. Psychological hedonism: the driving force behind our actions is pleasure (e. g. donating for charity makes us happy). Psychological altruism: at least some of our actions are motivated by (instinctive) benevolence. Joseph Butler (1692 1752): we have an inherent psychological capacity to show benevolence to others.
What is motivating moral decisions? Emotion or reason? David Hume (1711-1776): moral judgements involve our emotions and not our reason. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) true moral action is motivated only by reason when it is free from emotions and desires. Kurt Baier (The Moral Point of View: A Rational Basis of Ethics, 1958): proper moral decisionmaking involves giving the best reasons in support of one course of action versus another.
Normative ethics: endeavors to formulate moral standards regulating right and wrong conduct. A classic example of a single moral normative principle is the Golden Rule: We should do to others what we would want others to do to us.
Virtue ethics: stresses the importance of moral education, i. e. the importance of developing virtues as good habits and avoiding vices, i. e. bad character traits. Plato: four cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance and justice. Aristotle: virtues are good habits which regulate our emotions (e.g. the virtue of courage can suppress fear) Alasdaire MacIntyre (1984): Virtues have central role in moral theory; they emerge from social traditions.
Duty (deontological) theories (from δέον duty). Marality is based on the obligations we have as human beings (e.g. to not commit murder). These principles are obligatory, irrespective of the consequences that might follow from our actions (nonconsequentialist theories).
Four central duty theories: The first was formulated by the German philosopher Samuel Pufendorf (1632-1694 De officio hominis et civis juxta legem naturalem libri duo): duties to God, duties to oneself, and duties to others. The second theory is rights theory. John Locke (1632-1704): the laws of nature mandate that we should not harm anyone's life, health, liberty or possessions. These are our natural rights, given to us by God. Moral rights are natural, universal, equal, and inalienable. The third duty-based theory: Immanuel Kant: categorical imperative: Treat people as an end, and never as a means to an end (Denn vernünftige Wesen stehen alle unter dem Gesetz, dass jedes derselben sich selbst und alle andere niemals bloß als Mittel, sondern jederzeit zugleich als Zweck an sich selbst behandeln solle Kant, (AA IV, 433). A fourth duty-based theory: W.D. Ross (1877 1971): our (prima facie) duties are part of the fundamental nature of the universe. Seven prima facie duties: fidelity. gratitude, justice, beneficence, self-improvement, nonmaleficence.
Consequentialism: An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable. We have to tally both the good and bad consequences of an action and whether the total good consequences outweigh the total bad consequences. If the good consequences are greater, then the action is morally proper. If the bad consequences are greater, then the action is morally improper. Consequentialist theories are sometimes called teleological theories.
Three aspects of consequentialism: Which consequences affecting whom? Ethical Egoism: an action is morally right if its consequences are more favorable than unfavorable to the agent. Ethical Altruism: an action is morally right if its consequences are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the agent. Utilitarianism: an action is morally right if its consequences are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone.
Applied ethics analyses specific, controversial moral issues. An "applied ethical issue" must be controversial and must be a distinctly moral issue. It is not enough for an issue to be "applied ethical issue" if it is only a controversial issue of social policy (e.g. public versus private health care system, energy conservation, affirmative action policies etc.).
Normative principles of applied ethics Personal benefit: acknowledge the extent to which an action produces beneficial consequences for the individual in question. Social benefit: acknowledge the extent to which an action produces beneficial consequences for society. Principle of benevolence: help those in need. Principle of paternalism: assist others in pursuing their best interests when they cannot do so themselves. Principle of harm: do not harm others. Principle of honesty: do not deceive others. Principle of lawfulness: do not violate the law. Principle of autonomy: acknowledge a person's freedom over his/her actions or physical body. Principle of justice: acknowledge a person's right to due process, fair compensation for harm done, and fair distribution of benefits. Rights: acknowledge a person's rights to life, information, privacy, free expression, and safety.
Research and Development
Definition in Frascati Manual 2015 (Guidelines for Collecting and Reporting Data on Research and Experimental Development, p. 44) Research and experimental development (R&D) comprise creative and systematic work undertaken in order to increase the stock of knowledge including knowledge of humankind, culture and society and to devise new applications of available knowledge. Research activity must be: - novel - creative - uncertain - systematic - transferable and/or reproducible.
Basic research is experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundations of phenomena and observable facts, without any particular application or use in view. Applied research is original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. It is, however, directed primarily towards a specific, practical aim or objective. Frascati Manual 2015, p. 45
Awareness of the continuity as the basis of the academic ethics: Bernard of Chartres. We are as dwarfs sitting on the shoulders of giants (Nos esse quasi nanos gigantum humeris insidientes.) We can see more than they, and things at a greater distance, not by virtue of any sharpness of sight on our part, or any physical distinction, but because we are carried high and raised up by their giant size.
An essential part of research is the respect for the work of others The problem of plagiarism Plagiarism: the unauthorized use or close imitation of the language and thoughts of another author and the representation of them as one s own original work (Webster s Encyclopaedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, s. v.)
Plagiarism is an ethical offence, an example of academic dishonesty and can be subject to sanctions, even expulsion: Psalm 69 (68), 29: Erase their names from the Book of Life; don t let them be counted among the righteous (Deleantur de libro viventium et cum iustis non scribantur).
Plagiarism is not a crime but it can represent copyright infringement. It is neither defined nor punished by law but rather by the higher education institutions as a breach of their Code of conduct.
There is no universally accepted definition of academic plagiarism: Teresa (Teddi) Fishman (Director of the International Centre for Academic Integrity): Plagiarism occurs when someone uses words, ideas, or work products attributable to another identifiable person or source: without attributing the work to the source from which it was obtained in a situation in which there is a legitimate expectation of original authorship in order to obtain some benefit, credit, or gain which need not be monetary
What to do? Prevention (helping understand what is plagiarism and how to avoid it; encouraging good practices; preventing and discouraging such practices etc.) Detection, also by means of plagiarism detection software. Rogeting the act of modifying the original text by substituting original words with synonyms (e. g. from Roget s Thesaurus) to fool common plagiarism detection software. Sanctioning The problem of self-plagiarism
What to do 2? Striving for (real) excellence which is not a quantity (e. g. number of points) but a quality Being honest with ourselves do not publish for the sake of points or fame Publish or perish: many unfinished/immature ideas are published forcing others to lose their time reading, quoting, and criticizing them. Time as the most precious commodity: it is immoral to waste time of others by publishing irrelevant things!
Some guidelines: Research has to be propelled by the quest for new knowledge. Identifying the research topic is not only a professional but also a moral question. Respect for ideas of others Critical approach to everything
The virtues of academic work: Academic honesty regarding the form and the substance Humanism, i. e. interest in the welfare of mankind Courage resisting pressures and not being afraid of truth Cartesian skepticism (methodic doubt) helping to resist the charms of form (undeserved honors and positions, material gains, privileges, etc.) endangering the substance of the science as the quest for truth. Objectivity, i. e. judgements based on observable phenomena and uninfluenced by emotions, personal or political prejudices, political correctness etc. Certain degree of idealism, i. e. pursuit of ideals (even without regard to practical ends) Optimism Fairness, especially regarding the team work and the ethical behavior inside the team (giving each his own - suum quique tribuere) Etc.
Let me thank you for your kind attention and wish you a pleasant evening
Let me thank you for your kind attention and wish you a pleasant evening Allegory of science in la salle Jobbé-Duval du Parlement de Bretagne à Rennes