DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY INCLUDING MANY OF THE PRINCIPAL CONCEPTIONS OP ETHICS, LOGIC, AESTHETICS, PHILOSOPHY OP RELIGION, MENTAL PATHOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY, BIOLOGY, NEUROLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, ECONOMICS, POLITICAL AND SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY, PHILOLOGY, PHYSICAL SCIENCE, AND EDUCATION AND GIVING A TERMINOLOGY IN ENGLISH, FRENCH, GERMAN, AND ITALIAN WRITTEN BY MANY HANDS AND EDITED BY JAMES MARK BALDWIN Ph.D.(Princeton), Hon. DSo.(Oxon.), Hon. LLD.(Glsgow) STUART PROFESSOR IN PRINCETON UNIVERSITY WITH THE CO-OPERATION AND ASSISTANCE OF AN INTERNATIONAL BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS IN THREE VOLUMES WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND EXTENSIVE BIBLIOGRAPHIES VOL.I jj2eto gorfe THE MACMILLAN COMPANY ILonHon MACMILLAN AND CO., Limed 1901
GREATEST HAPPINESS dtnt whethertkesplcewhoutny intervening medium or other gency. Leibnz objected to the Newtonin theory tht body cnnot ctwherenot. Th negtion ccepted s n xiom by mny physicts, who find support for their view by the pprently well-scertined fct tht electric nd mgnetic ttrction nd repulsion ct through the gency the ether, nd conclude from nlogy tht grvtion mybeduetothesmeorsimilr cuse. Some stronomicl phenomen hve recently led to the suspicion tht grvtion does not vry rigorously s the inverse squre, but increses more rpidly towrds the sun by n mount sominute s tomkesestblh ment difficult, except by the most refined nd elborte reserches. The simplest proposed formthemodified lwtht insted being inversely s inversely s tothe power +x,where x = 0-0000001612 = 1612-5-1010 (s.n.) Gretest Hppiness Ger.liikhstesGltick Fr. bonfieur supreme, supreme felice Itl. felie suprem. The gretest possible sur plusplesure overpininthelifeorlives referred to the reference being eher to n individul, communy, mnkind t lrge, 2 r1, r or sentient beings generlly. The ethicl doctrine tht gretest hppi ness the idel conduct received forml ), (1, mjory the members ny stte, the gret stndrd by which everything relting to tht stte must finlly be determined 1 7). (p. The double phrse good nd hppi ness doesnotimplyherethtgood different from hppiness, for immedely dded thtjustice nd vercy, for instnce, hve e nothing intrinsicllyexcellentinthem sep rte from their reltion to the hppiness mnkind (p. 18). A similr view found inbeccri (Deidelti delle pene, originlly publhed in 1764), whossertsthttheonly proper end for legltion l mssim feli e <liv nel mggior numero nexpres sion rendered in the Englh trnsltion (3rd ed., 1770) by the phrse towhich Benthm fterwrds gve currency, the gretest hppi ness the gretest number. The consti tuents gretest hppiness re enumerted bybenthm (Princ. Mor. nd Legt.), nd mde the bs hedontic clculus. The importnce, s sources hppiness, perm nent objects interest brought outbyj.s. Mill (Utilrinm, chp,ii),ndstillmore bysidgwick (Meth. Eth.,III. xiv). Lerture the uthors ced see lso Ethics, nd Ethicl Theories, nd Bibliog. 2,r. (W.B.S.) GreekTerminology (considered inreltion to Greek philosophy). (1) The vocbulry Europen philosophy hs s principl source in the technicl lnguge Greek philosophers. Of th technicl lnguge, portion hs pssed directly over into our modern philosophicl sttement in Western thought by Epicurus but the doctrine tht the gretest hppiness which the individul ought to pursue not h own hppiness, but tht the communy, seems to hve originted in policl theory, usge, e. number the fmilir terms nd, in s prece formultion, to be minly the trdionl forml logic, such s duetocertinenglhwrersthe18thcen syllogm, enthymeme,&c. portion, how tury. The socil content morly ws un ever,ndinfct very lrge portion, hs doubtedly no modern dcovery. The condi reched us in the form Ltin trnsltions tions required for qunttive estimte nd imtions Greek terms. Of th prt, hppiness re lid down by Wollston (Re gin, there re subdivions. The clssicl ligion Nture, 1722) nd regrd for the Romn philosophicl wrers begn the process hppiness others ws mde the crerion mking thedilectic rt spekinltin virtue by such wrers s John Gy(Prelim. (seectionsinprntl,gesch. d.logik, 511, Ds, to Kings Origin Evil, 1731,xxxvi) t the outset n importnt dcussion nd Hutcheson (Syst. Mor. Philos., 1755). the Romn terminology). The words sub Hutcheson mkes their tendency to universl stnti nd essenti, s trnsltions oltrl, be hppiness the crerion the mteril good long, for instnce, to th first strtum Ltin nessctions (wheres theirformlgoodness imtions Greek terms. second group consts in their flowing from good ffections Ltin terms nd phrses, formed under the in just proportion nd th crerion influence Greek originls, found inthe systemticlly pplied by him. theologicl terminology the Ltin Church. One the most dtinct erly sttements The scholstic philosophy constutes third th crerion in Priestleys Essy on the First Princ. Government 768) The good nd hppiness the members, tht the F, 422 g. A A i. period during which Ltin imtions or trns ltions Greek originls entered philosophicl lnguge. Andfromtimetotime,inmodern
philosophy, the coining new compounds, Greekorigin,hsgoneonsidebysidewh continution the processes to which the scholstic vocbulry self ws due. The effective tendency to dd to ll these sources philosophicl terms the modern vernculr lnguges themselves hs exted ever since MeterEckhrt, whose Middle Germn vocbu lry contined mny strikingimtions Greek ndscholstictermsbymenspurelyger much dcussion. The term presumbly mens mn words g.istigke foressenti= oii). (see Windelbnd, Gesch. lien Philos., 25, It will be seen, therefore, tht the influence nd Schmidts Synonymik, in the pssge just Greek terminology hs been mnifold, nd in ced) t once tht which boundless in s direct swellsdirect, since eventhe terms power to originte new products, nd boundless vernculr origin re ten more or less in s extent nd thus typicl exmple obviously modelled fter Greek terms. nerlynd undifferented terminology, (2) The process whereby the Greek termino whose menings nd usges hve indeed too logy philosophy rose nd becme grdu muchthe boundless bout them. lly more elborte nd more settled in (3)Butnext,evenwhen theerly philo outline, s follows. sophercoinsnonewwords,nddoesnotcon First, the erly thinkers, in the Pre- sciously intend ny unfmilir usge the Socrtic period, begn by undertking to d lredy extent terms, still h fteto cover generl explntions the origin nd nturethings. In dvncing theirtheories, (e., they were from thestrtled to emphsize certin spectsthephysicl world spects which they deemed especil importnce s furnhing, or s illustrting, their expln tions. To these emphsized spects they gve nmes, some which were lredy fmilir in populr lnguge. Sotheerlynmes the elements, wter, ir, fire, were course words indilyuse. Butin two wys the undertking, thus begun, very soon led to new developments. First, certin the spects theworld, which thephilosopher wsledto emphsize, were less fmilir to the populr mind, nd required reltively new nmes, so tht, before long, que novel coinges begn to pper in the technicl vocbulry philo sophy, or else words before exting were given prominence tht t once, by tking them out their more usul context, chnged them into technicl terms. Of the former tendency, present for instnce in the Pyth goren vocbulry, the coinge new bstrct nouns by individul philosophers remins, even to the present time, fmilir exmple. Here,infct, perennil ccompniment bstrct thought ndfewsystemticthinkers hvefiledtocointlestoneortwobstrct nouns. Of the words lredy extent, but turned intotechnicl terms bythe wy in which they re olted nd emphsized, the ntipov Anximnder forms the first instnce in the htory Greek philosophy. "When Homer (Od.viii. 340 see Schmidts Synonymik grieehchen Sprehe,iv. 512) mkes Hermes spek burpm irfipovts, the mening the Homeric ndpiov, s numberless, cler. But wht Anximnder ment by clling h elementry mteril the "mtipov e.theinfine,or sburnet,inthe work ced below, renders the Boundless) becomes something t once technicl nd obscure, bout whose prece mening there hs been (i. d., d. find h most fmilir words ltering their mening sheuses them. Fortohimthese fmilir words soon come to nme principles nd ultimte processes, rther thn the objects ordinrily in question when common sense employs the words. In vin then does the thinker, nywhere in h choice fundment llyimportnt terms,clingtothespeechthe people. H thought trnsforms whtever touches. The irvp dii fov(fire ever-living) Herclus so chrcterized by him tht soonlosesmuchtheseemingthemerely sensuous fire the common-sense world whwhich henodoubtintends toidentify. For th world-fire kindled nd extinguhed ccording to fixed mesure intelligent wnt nd stiety ndsoinmnyother wys fire, tken sthenmetheworldprinciple, soon lters s significnce, nd cn nolonger beconceived s merefire. Here 4*3 ginwedelwh tendency ever since im portnt in the htory terminology. The lter vocbulry psychology, ethics, nd metphysics fullinstncesthewy in which technicl usge hs gin nd gin come to mke the fmilir seem strnge. Thus everybody uses the verb to be, nd dtinguhes between extence nd non-extence but dcussion the mening theterms for being tonce seems, tothe populr mind, something extremely reconde nd the most common words soon pper utterly foreign nd mysterious when once they re found, in such dcussion, s technicl terms. From the Eletic philosophers down, nd very
notbly in Iltos ontologicl dilogues, such s the Prmenides, the Sopht, nd the Philebus, th wht hppens to the terms usedfor being. (4) The consequence to which these ten unconscious trnsformtions the populr usgeled tht erelong,inerly Greek philosophy, ech thinker comes to employ, upon occsion, conscious devices for mrking f h ownpeculirusgeterms. Tothend ()Hesometimes objects tothepopulrview, becuse does not sufficiently observe the menings nd dtinctions s own words. In clling ttention to such populr confusions, the thinker indeed intends, so fr, to clrify ides whout necessy reforming vocbu lry. But the effect upon terminology in evble, since the dtinction, once emphsized, rendersimpossiblethenive usge. Thettck Prmenides upon the common opinions bout the reltion being nd non-being involves, for instnce, just such n instence upon the importnce dtinction lredy known to lnguge, but, s Prmenides holds, neglected bycommonsense. Youcnnottrulyspek non-being youmustnotrecognize. For bsolutely differentfrom being. Theresult such observtions becomes importnce forthefutureterminology. Orgin(6) The thinker, in somewht different fshion, ledtoexpresshowntheorythings by consciously sserting tht certin terms nd phrses in common use re essentilly m leding, sotht forthem there ought tobe substuted such nd such other words. To mkeobservtionsthkindtoidinthe formtion define terminology, in cse the observtions re themselves t ll success ful. Thus the erly thinkers, fter Prmenides, when ttention hs once beenclled tothe deeperproblems bout the genes things, re found using such expressions s tht Empedocles There noorigintion(<fni<tts) nything mortl,noryetnyend,...but only mixture nd seprtion wht mixed (/«?nd di\\$ts). Butmongst men clled (j)v(r (see Firbnks, First Philo sophers Greece, 162). Orgin,Anxgors declres tht TheGreeks donotrightlyuse the terms"coming intobeing"nd"perhing" (to &"«ylviiroi. K\ vokkvbi). Asfct,he continues, one should use the terms vuiiurytbm nd biukplvtbt,termswhichginmenmix turendseprtion(firbnks,op.c., 245). Efforts towrds n estblhment usge which hve reched th stge involve n in tentionl djustment terms to doctrines, 4*4 nd herewh the htory terminology proper begins. (5) Thenexthigher stgetheoneespeci lly due, in Greek thought, to the influence Socrtes,ndinprtlsotheSophts. Theundertking to define termsnowbecomes recognized prt the philosophicl idel. Defining terms nd reflectively clrifying ides re henceforth undertkings tht pro gress side by side. The method involved becomes very importnt portion the di lecticl rt. ThePltonic dilogues develop th rt wh gret nd conscious virtuosy. The elementry fults in definion re well recognized (see the ten-quoted pssges in Pltos Theetetus, 146-7, 208D inthe Meno, 7 1BndintheGorg, 448 Bnd cf. Zeller, Philos. d. Griechen, 3rd ed., Th. II. Abth.I. 617). In voiding these fults,nd in developing truedefinions, onelsounder tkes to crete more prece terminology. Bymensthe processes clssifiction nd divion terms nd ides so extensively developed by Plto, one comes to rrnge terms in more systemtic groups, the hier rchyclssesinthecsethesubdivions nylrgest clssrequiring theselection ppropre terms for ll the members the hierrchy. Such systemtic rrngements, however, ten lso require, for the filling out theomsionsinthe scheme, thecoinge newterms, ndthcoingenowguidedby needs which the method mkes one definely conscious. The direct influence the rt clssifiction upon the orgniztion philo sophicl terminology thus from the strt vible, nd my be especilly observed in the more technicl Pltonic dilogues, such s the Prmenides, Theetetus, Sopht, nd Philebus. Thertin question lsoinevbly develops s own specil terminology, whereby svriousprocessesrethemselvesnmed (see, for generl survey thepltonicuse clssifiction, the monogrph Luks, Die Methode d. EintheUung bei Plto, Hlle, 1888. Inth monogrph, specil summries the terminology used by Plto for the rt clssifiction regiven,pp.28,54,85,110, 216). Todivide lrger clss into ssubdivionsexpiessedinpltobytheverbs rifiv*u> ndhmpci- <rdm.heuses,bothforlogiclclssesndsub clsses, the terms yevot nd c&oc but no define dtinction between these two terms, s genus nd species, extsforplto (see lsocmpbell, in Jowett nd Cmpbells ed. the Republic, 300). Yet, despeth high development thepltonicrt clssifying ndorgnizing
termsndmenings,pltohimself ledtono estblhed system philosophicl terms, such s Artotle undertook to develop. Pltosusge vries wh the different dilogues, nd in wys tht hve suggested to mny investigtors inquiries s to the chronology the Pltonic use lnguge inthevrious periods h lerry ctivy(cmpbell, Lutoslwski, &c. Seethelerture inlutoslwskbook (ced below), nd the recent ppers Ntorp, Arch.f. d.gesch.d.philos., xii). Thesestylometric investigtions, to be sure, concern much more thn mtters technicl termino logy. Cmpbell clls Pltos philosophicl terminology incipient, tenttive, trnsionl, nd points out tht he regrded the sophtic efforts in th direction s pedntry. In fine, then,thertdefining terms forplto fvoure nd highly elborte rt, but he ppliesechtimefreshndhenever dposed to bebound bytheusgeinvolved in the results h previous efforts. (6) InArtotle,terminology ndtheidel philosophicl system culminte together. At the outset h vrious systemtic d cussions, Artotle ten engges in more or less extended rgument regrding wht does, nd wht doesnot,fllwhin the prece scope ny prticulr brnch science. In such nd such mtters the physict ((pv-ixos) interested the metphysicin (6 npn-os 4>t\6<ro<pos) concerned wh other spects ndyetothersretheffirsthestudent dilecticsormorls. Theboundries the sciences thus stnd s definely nmed nd conscious limtions tht freedom the rgument to wnder wherever will, upon which Plto, in the Theetetus, hd lid such stress, nd which Pltos most fmous dilogues furnh so mny instnces. Th new tendency in Artotle only one symptom the generl interest tht philosopher in techniclly dtinguhing the vrious spects things, infixingupontermsndexpressions sued to ech spect, nd in solving fund mentlproblems bymens th method dtinctions. For Artotles divions the sciencesrenotwhollydue tothe smein terest which gets expressed in the modern divion lbour, since Artotle himself covered the whole rnge the vrious sciences, whose provinces he ll the while divided, by their definions, from one nother. Nor yet h interest merely tht the lover systemforsownskeforartotle no pednt. H use the dtinctions highly wrought terminology to consider, bleextent,duetohefforttohrmonize the vrious points view erlier thinkers, nd to solve pprent contrdictions by showing how,in certin sense, ech two pprently contrdictory proposions cn be true. Thus terminologicl orgniztion nd defineness wh Artotle, conscious instrument h, mny-sidedness. In finding h vrious terms, Artotle mkes free use the rich mterils lredy prepred for him by the previous thinkers, especilly by Plto. In the fifth bookthemetphysics hegivesus specimen h terminologicl method, in the form dcussion the vrious menings series philosophicl termsnd usges. Thbook ws presumbly wrten s seprte essy, nd mny s dtinctions re elsewhere more fully dcussed, in their systemtic plces. Butthedevicetonceppeling togenerl usge, while t the sme time consciously puri 425, fyingnd ltering much more systemti cllyusedbyartotlethnbyplto,whthe result tht lmost no terms pss through Artotles hndwhout, seucken sys, re tining trces the influence h thought (Eucken, Gesch. d. philos. Terminol., 26). Menwhile, Artotle freely invents new terms, in wy esily rendered possible by the fcily forming compounds in Greek. Eucken (loc. c.) enumertes, s mere specimen Artotles construction terminology, lt some seventy-five new terms nd expressions, but regrds the philo sophers trnsformtion nd fixtion the erlier usges s still more htoricl im portnce. notble chrctertic the Artotelin lnguge, lso dwelt upon by Eucken, thesettinginto shrpnthes terms formerly eher synonymous, or else less A shrply dtinguhed. Thus yivos nd cisos wh him first ssume their well-known nthes s genus nd species. Another fmilir Artotelin nthes tht < u nd 8i6«T (permnent condion or estb lhed ltb on the one hnd, temporry or chngeble dposion on the other hnd). Still more importnt the nthes ot hvvp nd(vipyu(cpcy or potentily on the one hnd, ttinment or ctuly on the other) ndwellknown lso the chrcter tic contrst between npottpw <pc<rnd TTfiiirepovwpos >ips, which plys such prt in Artotlestheory knowledge (the former expression mening the universl principle, or, s Prntl fond clling der schbpferche Begriff, the cretive notion or form while the ltter expression refers to the individul,, t?i
especilly to the sensuous individul, which in our knowledge comes first, while in the nture things the universl prior tothe in dividul). These re ll clssic instnces the evolution terminology in Artotle through shrper differention expressions nd menings. (7)In consequence, philosophy owes to Artotle very lrge portion s lter technicl terminology. In logic the debt especilly obvious nd well known, since here, even where Artotle uses expressions lredy employed by Plto or by other wrers, their definive mening or usge rightly most ssoced wh Artotles nme. The wellknowntble Ctegoriesthetermssubstnce, ccident, quly, qunty, reltion, &c. theclsses judgments the nmesthe processes,orthemens,inference,nd the modes nd figures the syllogm (prt from few lter ddions or forml refine mentsartotles terminology) the nmes the principl fllcies the textbooks forml logic thewell-known metphysicl dtinction between form ndmtter ( d tinction now very fmilir even in populr lnguge) the terminology ll the principl ontologicl problems these, whether pre servedtous in theoriginlgreek terms,or represented by Ltin trnsltions, re some the most chrctertic the Artotelin contributions to the speech lter thought. It true tht, upon closer exmintion, the prtplyedbypltointhepreprtion ll these expressions ppers greter thn t first sight. Plto, for instnce, in the Theetetus, lredy gives wht Lutoslwski ventures tocll the firsttble ctegories (Theet. 185) ndinthesopht nd the Philebus other efforts towrds systemtic lt fundmentl notions re present. In mny other cses Plto hs lso prepred the wy. But, s we hve lredy found Eucken pointing out, Artotle even more importnt sreformer ndnestblher previously suggested terminology, thn s n inventor wholly new terms. In the other brnches science, Artotles terminology gret htoricl importnce, lthough thegrowth knowledge hs in mny regions tended to set beside h terms others lter dte. Of permnent significnce h terminology, especilly, in the philosophicl portions the philosophy nture, in psychology, in ethics, nd in such portion policl science s h own dcussions hve most ffected. (8) In lter Greek philosophy the termino logythe Stoics thefirstimportnce. The most significnt nd chrctertic d vnces ll the lter Greek terminology hve todo wh the growth clerer con (i) sciousnessstotheinner life, nd s to the contrst between the objective nd subjective spects rely (see Eucken,op.c.,31 d. nd the terminologicl dcussions in Siebecks Gesch. Psychol., Th. Abth.II, especilly Siebecks ccount the lter doctrine the emotions, 222-41, nd the summry lter doctrines s to the prcticl spect mentl life, 241-61, s well s the chpter on the concept consciousness, 331-42). by I, The lter Greek terminology influenced(ii) the reltions between philosophy, nd the now more or less independent developments the specil sciences, such s medicine. Here the psychophysicl problems connected wh psychology re especil importnce for terminology. The doctrine the pneum, or vl spir, typicl instnce where medicl nd philosophicl specultions inter cted,ndinfluencedterminology (see Siebeck, op.c., 30-60). Here, indeed, the theories inquestionhdtheirbsinveryerlythink ing, nd their plce in Artotle. But the Stoics,ndGlen (who diedbout200a. i>.), extended nd systemtized both the empiricl bses nd the specultive pplictions th doctrinethepneum,ndtheresult,inone direction, influenced even the que modern terminology psychologicl theory g.in 1 cse the Crtesin doctrine the niml spirs contctwhjewhtheology(in Philond in the Jewh-Alexndrine specultion gener lly),thetheorythepneumcmetooccupy plce vst importnce in the htory (e. ) while,innotherdirection,through theology. The well-known populr d tinction body, soul, nd spir becomes htoriclly intelligible only in the light th prticulr development terminology nd the doctrine the Triny received ex pression in terms belonging prtly to the sme htoricl context. On the other hnd, the development the psychophysicl termino logy lsoseeninthelterdoctrine the temperments, systemtized by Glen, nd since very widely populrized through psycho logicl dcussions (cf. Siebeck, op.c.,278-90). Other instnces th type termino logicldevelopment renotlcking. But (iii) the lter terminology expresses constntly incresing interest in the problems theology, 426 viewed s such. Despe the growing sense
the contrsts between inner nd outer, sub jectnd object, good nd evil, divinend mundne, the Stoic philosophy, which pre vilingly montic, recognizes such contrsts onlyinordertottempt toreducethemgin tounyndtheterminology thetheories here concerned becme importnt for ll lter theology. Centrl in th development the doctrine the Xdyor. The philosophicl use th term begn indeed wh Herclus, but s metphysicl term, forthe objective resoninthings, hdgoneintothebck ground since tht thinker, both Plto nd Artotle giving other terms the preference. The Stoics revived nd developed, in connectibn wh considerble terminology, whose pplictions were t first pnthetic. Lter, through Philo,s well sthrough the inner development certin Stoicl nd eclectic tendencies, the term logos cme into reltions wh thetic doctrines, nd ttined very importnt plce in Chrtin theology. The reltions between the term logos nd the before-mentioned mxi/i were from n erly stge close, nd theinterprettion given to both becme lso cricl significnce, in the dcussions regrding the montic nd dultic interprettions thereltions between God nd world, nd between the divine spir nd the individul soul. (Upon the logos, nd the whole relted terminology, see, in ddion to the systemtic htories Greek philosophy, Heinzes Lehre vom Logos in,, griechchen Philos., Oldenburg, 1872.) In close connection wh the theologicl pro blemstndsthtregrding the freedom the will, whose influence upon psychologicl ter, I, d. dtinction between the we nd the foolh mongst men, nd the bsence degrees in the possession the virtues, lso ffects the ethicl terminology the Stoics. These my serve merely s exmples Stoic usge. Less significnt re the Epicuren ddions to ethicl terminology, (v) In the lter, nd especilly, gin, in the Stoic logic, there pper considerble ltertions nd elbor tions former terminology, s well s new i. I, expressions. (Here onemyconsult especilly Prntl, Gesch. d. Logik, 412-96. More compendious Zellers ccount, Philos. Griechen, Th. Ill, Abth. 63-70, 86-114.) In the first plce, here, the technicl nme logic self Stoic origin, Artotle hving used the terms dtxfm-ticoc nd dvxvrikos. The term dilectic survives, to be sure, s the usul onefor thestoics lso. Inthe next plce, the Stoics fer reved tble ctegories, wherein, insted the Artotelin tble, they fer lt four ctegories, substrtum (to vnoktijuvov), quly (to not6v), stte or condion (j6vs ixov)i n^reltion orrel tivestte (to vpos t«wore tx0")- Theylsopy considerble ttention to the doctrine the judgment, nd in th region develop complex nd forml terminology, especilly in cse the theory the hypotheticl judgment. A similr development reltively new ter minology extsincsetheirtheorythe hypotheticl syllogm (see, in prticulr, Prntl, op. c., 470). Finlly, (vi) prt from the foregoing chrctertics the lter terminology, there to be noted generl ltertion the context nd significnce the vrious conceptions philosophy n ltertion which duetothedeepening re ligious consciousness the centuries imme dely following the Chrtin er, to the brodening those interests in common humny which grew wh civiliztion, to the greter prominence given by lter thought to the destiny the individul soul, nd, in minology goes, together wh the consequences tht dvnce, in knowledgetheinner life bovementioned (cf. Siebeck, op.c.,248 ff. Heinze, op.c., 125 ff., 153ff.). And next (iv) the lter terminology significnt in s more purely ethicl spects. The Stoicl definion the highest good s the concordnt orconstent life,orsthelifeinccordnce generl, to the richer, lso more problem wh nture (o/ioxoyovfievos (fjv, or opoxnyovfiivt tic nd confused, life the Romn empire, ti <f>i<r i), n instnce n expression tht nd erly Chrtiny. From th point hssincebeenin verygenerl use (cf. Zeller, view hs to be remembered tht terms Philo* d. Griechen, Th. Ill, Abth. 211). suchsthoseforjustice, forfreedom,forthe The concept the indifferent, which neher divine, for reson, nd for humny, neces goodnorill,but meremtterfortune (the srily tend to hve greter, lthough lso di<f>opovin generl), expressed by nother vguer, depth mening for lter, ncient chrctertic Stoic term. The Stoic theory thinkers thn for those whose world ws virtue, nd the vrious specil virtues, nrrower one. Tht th greter depth involves terminology tht in prt, modelled mening lso ten implies more obscure fter Artotle nd Plto, in prt indepen chrcter, tendency on the prt the thinkers dently expressed. The doctrine the bsolute to lose sight the shrper definions their 27 if d.
termsndthtthesme progressinhumn experienceleds,ontheother hnd,tonin cresing tempttion toseek escpe from ll these too-puzzling life-problems by mens formlm nd pedntry these re the in evble mhps more complex civiliz tion. In generl, moreover, hs to be remembered tht, if the life humny, fter thechrtin er,fced problems deeper mening thn those the Greek cies, there ws never gin present, in the ncient world, the cretive power tht Plto nd Artotle hd possessed, so tht the lter ncient philo sophy ws never dequte to s vstly enlrged tsk. Intheworkthelstgretthinker Greek philosophy, Plotinus, the older ter minology ws not notbly reformed or in cresed but the deepenedinsightintore ligious nd ethicl problems, nd the vster world in which Plotinus lived, tend to chnge theforcendtheimpliction htermsin wywhich Euckenhsin generl dcussed (op.c.,39f.). (9)The foregoing sketch thehtory Greek terminology intended only s rude outline, to suggest the generl motives tht pper to hve determined the development philosophicl speech. Upon the subject, tken in s entirety, no dequte trete exts. Mterils bering upon the topic hve been collected in the most vrious wys, nd lie scttered throughout the lerture ncient philosophy. While therefore no de qute bibliogrphy our topic cn here be given,propertoddtothefewforegoing lerry references more forml mention number ids to study Greek ter minology. Of the generl htories bering upon ncient thought, Zellers Philosophic der Griechen contins, usully in the form foot notes, gret mny dcussions individul terms. These dcussions re introduced t points the text, determined by the generl interests Zellers explntion the vrious doctrines, so tht here, s usul throughout thewhole lerture philosophy, theter minologicl interest subordinted to the systemtic nd to the exposory interests. The generl index to Zellers htory, publhed ssupplement tothethirdedion (the first prtonly beingreferred to,inthindex, in sfourth edion), indequte stermino logicl indexthenotesin question, sotht for Zellers best remrks the student must in generl seek in their own plces. Briefer re the dcussions terms to be found from timetotimein Ueberwegs ndwindelbnds htories. The ltter uthor, in h Generl Htory Philosophy, trets the develop ment concepts, rther thn the philo sophers s individuls, or their systems s seprte wholes but no very gret spce given to the specil htory terms, lthough mny terms re incidentlly treted. In Windelbnds ccount Greek philosophy in the Ilndbuch der klsschen A Iter&umswsenschft,thererelsogoodmnybriefstte ments terminologicl chrcter. Prntls Geschichte der Logik decidedly full in s ccount the development the logicl vocbulry but once more, the mteril widely scttered through Prntls text, nd not esytind for the purposes the htory specilterms. Avlublecollection nd compron ll the vrious enumer tions which Artotle gives h ctegories (see thesummry tbleinprntl,i. 207) good exmple the elborteness Prntls work in th field. Specilly upon terminology self Eucken hs wrten, in h dmirble nd compct Geschichte der pji&osophchen Terminologie, severl times ced in the fore going. Here pp.8-47 redevotedtosketch the htory Greek terminology. The reltions the technicl terminology Greek philosophy to the lnguge tken s whole, ndtothepopulr ndlerryusge,cnbe extensively studied byusej.h.heinrich Schmidts Synonymik der griechchen Sprche (Leipzig, 1876-86, 4 vols.), where, necessy, the philosophicl vocbulry lwys treted, so to spek, s n epodein the generl development the lnguge, but where gret mss mteril bering upon our subject hs been collected, compred, nd indexed. Exmples Schmidts method, nd s reltion to philosophicl interests, re 282 ff.) onyiyvokv h h rticle 13 series rticles 41-50, t the outset BookII, onthegreek expressions for spce ndtime reltions h rticle 81 (ii.527 49) on thtu, the extentil vocbulry, nd the copul nd h rticle 147 (iii. 621-55) on m"* nd s llied terms. Of no ltle interest for n understnding the reltions between the populr nd the technicl vocbulry ethics Leopold Schmidts 428 (i. Ethik der lien Griechen. The terminology Greek psychology receives much ttention in Siebecks Geschichte der Psychologie (Erster Theil). (10) Pssing from more generl to more specil works, the vocbulry the erly Greek philosophers hs been dcussed, wh
much independence, lthough in the usul incidentl wy, by Burnet, in h Erly Greek Philosophy (see, for exmple, h ccount theterm (pv, p.10sntipov, p.59ff.). Re grding the terminology Plto, the mteril indeed oppressively vst, but for tht reson extremely hrd to bring into order. Asts LexikonPltonicum (3 vols.,leipzig,1853-8) still the principl ttempt t complete ccount the Pltonic vocbulry. There exts lso Mchells Index Grect Pltonice (2 vols.,oxford, 1832). Inthethird volume Jowett nd Cmpbells edion the Republic, n essy by Cmpbell upon Pltos Use Lnguge contins, s s second prt, study the Pltonic diction. Ofth prt the essy one sub-section (pp. 291-340) especilly concerned wh Pltosphilosophicl expressions. The Pl tonic vocbulry upon s ontologicl side hs been very elbortely nlysed, s contribu tiontothe htoryconceptsndterms, by Peipers, in h Ontologi Pltonic(Leipzig, 1883). Pltos logicl terms, not whout much dcussion other sides h vocbulry, findplceinlutoslwskrecentwork upon The Origin nd Growth Pltos Logic (London, 1897). Inthbook,moreover,since the uthor much concerned in ttempts to fix the chronology Pltos wrings by mens stylometric creri, n ccount givenlongseriesworks ththvebeen devoted to vrious spects Pltos style nd lnguge ndin consequencelutoslwsk book, in ddion to s intrinsic worth, vluble bibliogrphicl id to ny one interested in comprtive study the lerture regrding Pltos lnguge nd usgeterms. InthecseArtotle,the centre ll study h vocbulry remins thegret IndexBonz, which forms the concluding volume the Berlin Acdemy edion Artotles works. The recent Artoteles- Lexikon Kppes (Pderborn, 1894), founded upon the Bonz Index, but put into n extremely compendious form, serviceble vocbulry Artotles technicl terms,intendedfortheusethestudentwho finding h wy into Artotle. Wllces Artotle lso contins brief definions lrge number Artotelin terms. Artotle himself, especilly in the logicl tretes, nd in the Metphysics, hs done much to render define thetsk studying hterminology, by dcussing extensively the vrious menings terms. Hewsinfct,swehve seen, thefirstwrer uponterminology. (11) To psstostill more specil ids to terminologicl study, we my mention few specimens the lerture deling wh pr ticulrterms,or groups terms. Herethe most prominent plce will be given to exmples the lerture Artotelin terms. The Englh edions the individul dilogues Plto ten contin dcussions the ter minology the dilogue, or comprons wh other dilogues. To lim ourselves here to twoveryrecent cses Innedion the Philebus, by Bury (Cmbridge Universy Press, 1897), there n ppendix uponto Sntipov in Erly Greek Thought, followed t oncebynotherupon to irtipov ndtonips inplto (see op.c., 178-95). In lter ppendix (201-11), Bury dcusses the Pl tonic nd, incidentlly, the generl Greek con ceptiontruth (Xqdrt). Inh edion the Timeus (London, 1888), Archer Hind, inh lengthyintroduction, dcussesprt the Pltonic ontologicl vocbulry, in vrious dilogues, s well s inprticulr in the Timeus self, nd in h notes dcusses lso mny points Pltonic terminology. On Artotelin terminology, one my here first mention Brentno, Von der mnnigfchen Bedeutung des Seienden bei Artoteles (1862), n ccount the Artotelin ontologicl conceptsndterms,wh especilreferenceto the concepts ctul nd possible being, nd the ctegories. Of stndrd importnce Trendelenburgs Geschichte der Ktegorienlehre in h Htorche Berge zur Philo sophic, i. See lso Newmns edion the Polics. Of the sme subject Schuppe hs treted in h ltle book Die Artotelchen Ktegorien(Berlin, 187 The ontologicl voc bulry Artotle deltwhinthetwo stndrd edions the Metphysics, tht Bonz,nd tht Schwegler. Seelso the dserttion Bernrd Weber, De oio- 1 8 56 1). pud Artotelem Notione eiusque Cognoscende Rtione(Bonn, 1887) very clerly stted ccount ll the principl fundmentl con ceptsndtermsin question. OntheArto telin concept my**) there mucholder dserttion by Eug. Pppenheim (Berlin, ),entleddenecesstpud rtotelem Notione, which contins lso study the termst6iwrovndtoivfxopevov, ndthe relted terminology. Berlin dserttion 1866, by Oscr Wesenfels, dcusses Chnce nd Mtter in their ontologicl reltions, under the tle De Csu et Substnti Artotel, but contins fewer terminologicl comprons. 429 A A
GREEN GRESHAMS LAW An importnt mtter Artotelin usge included in the topic dserttion by Johnn Schmz (Bonn, 1884), De <t>r«ot pud ArtoUlem Notione, eiusque d Annm Rtio) te. The terminology Artotle regrd ing the Intellect, ctive nd pssive, in s reltion to ll the much-debted problems Artotles doctrine upon tht subject, comes under considertion in Brentnos Psycholoyie des Artoteles(Minz, 1867) nd the lter htory the question (down to 1882) summed up in n essy by Zeller, originlly publhed in the Berlin Acd. Szungsberichte for1882,under thetle UeberdieLehre des Artoteles von dtr Eurigke der WeU. See lso Eugen Eberhrd, Die Artotelche Defini tionderseeleundihr Werthfiir diegegenwrt (Berlin,1868). An importnt topic,both Pltonic nd Artotelin psychology, bering upon theusgedifficultterm,treted in the dserttion Peter Meyer, 6 6v/i6s pud Artotelem Pltonemque (Bonn, 1886). The sme term, together wh other psycho logicl terms in Artotelin usge, forms the topic Dembowsk dserttion (Konigsberg, 1 881)(1) De kou/ovrdijtiipiov Ntur etnotione (2) DeNtur et Notione roo (fuov qutenus est Prs opt&s. Another importnt psychologicl term the subject n essy by J. Freudenthl, Ueber den Begriff des Wortes tpvro-i (Gottingen, 1863), who onp.52 compres the tpmo-i wh other relted mentl processes, nd so dcusses lso, in mesure, the terminology these pro cesses. Both psychologicl nd eptemologicl terms, especilly, course, the ltter, receive tretment in Kmpes Erkenntnstheorie des Artoteles(Leipzig, 1870). Upon the syste mtic terminology Artotles zoologicl wrings there dserttion by Ludwig Heck (Leipzig, 1885), entled Die Huptgruppen des ThiersysUms bei Artoteles und seine n Nchfolgern, which lso gives spce to the clssifictions nd terminology Pliny nd Albertus Mgnus. The fundmentl con cepts Artotle regrding the elements, ff. together wh th side h terminology, treted, in s reltion to lter thought, by Lorscheid, Artoteles Einflussuf dieentwickelung der Chemie(Miinster, 1872). These form few exmples selected from the lerture the more difficult or less ccessible portions the Artotelin ter minology. The philosophers ethicl vocbu lry hs been very extensively dcussed, but perhps sufficiently treted in vrious stndrd edions the Nicomchen Ethics. Theneed systemtic tretment the whole rnge Greek terminology mde only the more obvious by these frgmentry notes the lerture nd mybehoped thtduettention will erelong begiven to thneed. Glosbrt. (J-K.) The numerls refer to the prgrphs the rticle. Siipopov, \r)0tt, II. K\ii (immede) in Artotle, see Hegels TERMINOLOGY,IV (o). dvyict),. ixvtiftus, irupov, 3, IO, II. 1 1 7. 7. yiwot,5,6. yiyvwoktiv,q. Si&$f<ns, SiAcxTixdr, biptioi. 5. 8tir/ur, nd seepower. 6. 6, 8. ttlet, (ht, 9,nd seebeing 5, 6. ivip-fti,0, nd seepower. t(ts, 6. koivuv ibr/tqpioi II. \6yos, 8. i <pvoi>c6s,6. vovs, 9 see lso Nous. Bvpus, II. op((ts,ii. ori,(1), see Essence cf. Ltin Termino logy, 7. irvtvp, vplittpov(in phrses), Trip( Herclus), 8. 3. rivuv, TO tiwtuvj 1. ri ivsfxauirov, II. to irip, II. to voi6y, tavp6s tj nnixo",8. t6 ti*xov* to inrokiipfyov, 5. 7. 1 tprri, II. 7* <pvots,4, IO, II. Green, Thoms Hill. (1836-82.) An Englh philosopher, born t Birkin, Yorkshire died t Oxford. H fther ws rector Birkin. He ws educted t Rugby, nd t Blliol College, Oxford. In i860 he ws electedfellowblliol,ndin1862wonthe Chncellors prizeforn essy onnovels. In 1866 he becme tutortblliol. In 1872 hewsre-elected Fellow, ndin 1878 Whyte Pressor Morl Philosophy. He ws the leder the Neo-Hegelin movement in Englnd. GregriousInstinct [Lt. grex, flock] Ger. Herdeninstinkt Fr. instinct gregire Itl. tinto dggregzione. The instinct to go in compnies. The lterntive theories th instinct re those Instinct (q.v.) 43 generlly. Lerture see tles given under Com prtive Psychology, ndsocil Psycho logy, (j.m.b.) Gregriousness see Gbegbious In stinct, nd Socily. Greshms Lw Ger. Greshm sches Gesetz Fr.loi degreshm Itl. legge di Greshm. 7. 6.