Cfuipter-2: ^searcfi- design

Cfuipter-2: ^searcfi- design

CHAPTER-2 RESEARCH - DESIGN A major chunk of the population of India has been dependent on agriculture. Majority of them do not own even a piece of land is also a fact, though unjustified. Generally they do not have any other occupation except agriculture, which is both because of economic as well as socio political factors, prevalent in rural Indian society. "Land to the tiller"^ was the slogan given by Indian peasantry during freedom struggle of India. In post independence period land reforms measures have been considered as a-vital element in the anti poverty thrust for increased agricultural productivity. Late Prime Minister Mrs Indira Gandhi (1970)^ at the Chief Ministers conference suggested that "land reform is the most crucial test which our political system must survive. It is also an essential pre requisite for self sufficiency in food grains." Since then a number of positive steps have been taken by various state governments in this direction. The recent decade is known for the far reaching changes made in various sectors of economy under the banner of Structural Adjustment Programme as well as stabilization process. The changed economic environment has raised several controversies regarding nature of reforms needed in agricultural sector. There is much space for state intervention to provide protective measures for landless, marginal and small farmers through legislation and regimentation of society, when the stalwarts of reform process recommend the solution based on dialogue and peoples participation. (1) STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM: Land has become an extremely scarce resource in India, and in recent decades. under rising population pressure the land has been used extensively as well as ' ^ Bipan Chandra- "India's Straggle for Independence 1857-1947"- Penguin Books, N. Delhi(1989), pp50-51 Mrs Indira Gandhi (1970) at Chief Minister's Conference, New Delhi 34

intensively for food security and other uses. But in order to sustain productive capacity of land, it has to be used and managed properly through policy, institutional and technological instruments. The distribution of owned land holdings has become more inegalitarian overtime, while the distribution of operational holdings has improved. Incidence of landlessness has declined in recent years, and this has happened across all social groups (SC,ST and others). Access of socially and economically deprived groups (SC, ST) to land has improved in all the states. But there is preponderance of tiny holdings. On this there was a suggestion that whether socially deprived groups have really been benefited from policy initiatives such as land redistribution. A cluster approach (in term of concentration of their population) would be more revealing. In this context it was also suggested to provide some analysis of land ceiling and land redistribution. Incidence of tenancy has declined overtime, and it has become less exploitative as the structure of land-lease market has been undergoing a change from share tenancy to fixed produce and fixed cash tenancy. Agricultural technology has been an important determinant of changing tenancy relationships. Consolidation of holdings has been undertaken in most of the states, but still a lot is to be done. Land is a finite natural resource, which is unlikely to define limits to agricultural growth under the existing technology is not too distant a fiiture. This is especially true for south Asia in general and India in particular, where much of the arable land has already been brought under cultivation, unlike the other developing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. In India, by mid-nineties, more than 85 percent of the cultivable area had already been brought under cultivation. It is clear, therefore, that there is a need for a greater management of agricultural land resources in India, which can be done through land reforms and other potential measures to bring all-round comprehensive development of the community and its people. The present study focuses on how community development can be raised through land 35

reforms particularly in Uttar Pradesh where the highest population of rural India resides. It is the first largest producing state in production of wheat, sugarcane barley, maize, potatoes etc and a leading producing state of fruits, Vegetables, Gram, Cotton, Mustard etc. are the main cash crops in the state. Present study is an attempt to understand the status of implementation of various measures of land reforms._whether claim of surplus land distribution could be translated at the ground level, whether tenancy could be abolished, if not what are the forms of tenancy and what are the reasons behind survival of tenancy. Whether Gram-Samaj land has really been distributed and possessions were ensured. It is also relevant to know the procedural relations and management. To what extent the beneficiary effectively i.e. the land is in possession of beneficiary, if there is indication of positive impacts on rural and human development. These are some of the basic issues that have been dealt in this study. (2) OBJECTIVES: (1) To study the community development and land reform as a theoretical concepts. (2) To study the evolutionary aspect of land reforms. (3) To study the role of land reforms in raising community development. (4) To study and analyze the governmental efforts, initiatives and programmes pertaining to land reforms and community development. (5) To study the impact of land reforms measures on productivity, employment and income distribution. (6) To examine the inter-regional inequalities in the state of UP and analyze the pattern of concentration of land holdings therein. 36

(3) RESEARCH PROPOSITION (HYPOTHESIS): Keeping the objectives in mind, the following research propositions have been formulated and tested in this study. (1) As the level of awareness and literacy rises, it has a direct and positive impact upon the community life. (2) As the people participation takes place in large number, the programme becomes more successful. (3) There are inter-linkages" between land reforms and overall community development. (4) As land is the basic necessity of the human life, it has a positive impact on other aspects of the human development. (5) There is an impact of land reforms on agrarian structure and production. (6) There is an impact of land reforms on income distribution and employment. (7) Land Reform is helpful in achieving social justice by attributing measures. (8) It is hypothesized that rural poor are neglected in the society. (9) It is hypothesized that government machinery is negligent on their part to implement the schemes properly. (10)It is hypothesized that the participation of voluntary organizations may help the government to achieve the desire result. 37

(4) DATABASE: The study entails the collection of both secondary and primary level data to analyze the role of land reforms in community development and the study of District Aligarh in Uttar Pradesh, in this regard. PRIMARY DATA: Primary Data have been collected from the field- survey of villages of District Aligarh (Uttar Pradesh) to study the spatial inter- linkages, plus the data and relevant figures have been taken from the following materials :- 1. Census of India- 2001-series 1-India Tables on Houses, Household Amenities and Assets Published by Controller of Publications, Civil Lines, Delhi-54. 2. Census of India-2001- serieslo- Uttar Pradesh-vol-1, Tables of Houses, Household, Amenities and Assets. Published by Controller of Publication Civil Lines, Delhi-54. 3. Census of India-2001 -series 10-Uttar Pradesh-vol-1. 4. Census of India-2001-series 10-Uttar Pradesh- Vol-2. 5. Census of India-2001-series-10-Uttar Pradesh, Provisional Population Data of 2001. 6. Rural Labour Enquiry-Report on General Characteristics of Rural Labour Households-1999-2000- Government of India, Ministry of Labour Bureau ShimlayChandigarh-2003. 7. Rural Development Statistics-2000-National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad. 38

8. 10*'' Five Year Plan(2002-07) -Vol-1- Dimensions and strategies- Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi 9. 10* Five Year Plan-Vol-2-Sectoral Policies and Programmes-Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi. 10. Economic Survey-2004-2005-Ministry of Finance Economic Division, Govt, of India. 1 I.India Panchayati-Raj Report-2001-Vol-1,2, National Institute of Rural Development- Hyderabad (AP). 12. Census of India-200I-Popualtion Profile (India, States, UTs) New Delhi. 13. Statistical Diary, District Aligarh (UP) 2004, Office, District Statistical Office, Aligarh (UP). SECONDARY DATA: Under the category of secondary data, the relevant study materials, Text- Books, Articles etc. of the concerned areas have been analyzed. (5) METHODOLOGY: Aligarh District has been selected for the purpose of present study in order to carry out intensive study and its history has been taken into account. The development trend of the villages from area to area has been calculated in term of simple percentage and groavth rate. The spatial distribution of villages has been analyzed by nearest neighbor analysis and rank-size rule has been applied to understand the rank and size relationship of district and villages. To study the changes in functional structure of villages, the method of functional classification has been applied. 39

To study the infrastructural development, centrality score and composite index of the selected indicators has been calculated. To analyze the inter linkages in terms of socio- economic facilities like education, medical etc. simple percentages have been calculated. Research methodology used, are historical, analytical and comparative, through historical methodology I tried to trace the historical development of land reforms in Uttar Pradesh, through analytical, various data have been analyzed and inferences drawn and comparative methodology helped to compare the various issues and, data related to community development and land reforms in India, particularly in Uttar Pradesh. (6) STUDY AREA: A- UTTAR PRADESH "I had been to other countries - in Europe, Asia and the Middle East - but none of them had provided even half as much variety, or so much to see and experience and remember, as this one State in northern India. You can travel from one end of Australia to the other, but everywhere on that vast continent you will find that people dress in the same way, eat the same kind of food, and listen to the same music. This colourless uniformity is apparent in many other countries of the world, both East and West. But Uttar Pradesh is a world in itself." - Ruskin Bond. 40

UTTARP RADESH DISTRICT MAP UTTAR PRADESH»tei (District Map) ' I.Muzaflamagar 46.Kaushainbi 4i.Pr»Xapaati\ S.Metmt 50.Al»bed«ar Nsgar 51,Sairt KaWr H»B»' 5.Qhtba«52.Uah*rajganj 6.8Mlan<t«hahr SS.AItah«ba(i 7JyoUba Phut* Na8at54.jaunput B.Moraiiibad SS-Mamjarh S.Rampur to,aiiearf) lljujsnfl 12.Saf«illy t4.mathura IS.Hathrai 18,Ei8h 17.Shahiahsnpur 19-Agra 20#lro ai)«(l 2t.Mainpuri az.farrultiiabaii 23.Har(fot 24.Sitapur 25.Bahf8tc^, 56,(}ofaMip«r STDaoria SiKuabinagar $9.$aet Ravidas Nagar SO.Mfrzspur 81. Varanasi 62,Ghazipur 63.Mau (Maanath Bhinjan) 64.Chantiaul! es.sonwiaiffa W.Latilpiir 87.8aharanBut et.gauum BOdb Nagat SS.Bands rojaljia 2S.AuraiyB 29.Ka«p«rtRMral) SCKartpurfUrban) 31.Unnao 32,luel(flow 33.8arabaftki 34.0«fl<la 3S.Shfav«tli 36JaJram >ur ^rjafaun SlJhtnai oiuib^shafblrptir»'»»r40.nlahp«f AiMae Barailly 42.Sttllanpur ^ -» 43.fai7ab«() Map nettescale CopyHgbt (e) Cempire Infobast Pvt. Ul 2001-02 JHARKMAHO 4s;si4(,9rthft«B«r 4«.M«hoba 41

Uttar Pradesh Capital Largest city PoDulation (2001) Density Area Districts Time zone Establishment Legislature Official lansuase(s) Website Abbreviation (ISO) Lucknow 26.85 N 80.91 E Kanpur 166,052,859 (ist) 689 Person/ Sq.Km 238.566 km^ rsth) 70 IST futc+5:30) 1950-02-02 BicameraU404+108) Hindi http://vavw.upgov.nic.in/ IN-UP Uttar Pradesh, also popularly known by its abbreviation UP, is the most populous and fifth largest state in the Union of India. It is the most populous subnational entity (aka state) in the world. Uttar Pradesh covers a large part of the densely populated Gangetic plain. It shares an international border with Nepal and is bounded by the Indian states of Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh. Haryana. Delhi, Raiasthan. Madhya Pradesh. Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Bihar. The administrative and legislative capital of Uttar Pradesh is Lucknow: its high court is based at Allahabad. Other notable cities in Uttar Pradesh include Agra, Allahabad, Barelly, Aligarh, Varanasi (Benares), Goralchpur. Kanpur and Meerut. From the administrative point of view, the whole has been divided into 70 districts, 11 Nagar Nigams, 300 Tehsils, 809 CD. blocks, 701 urban units and 107166 villages. There are 17 commissionaires in the 42

state, which are headed by the commissioners. Each district is headed by District Magistrate(DM), for his help there are Additional District Magistrates (ADMs). The Chief Officer of Tehsil is called Sub-Divional Magistrate (SDM). The Tehsildar, is Chief of a Tehsil, for his help, there are Nayab Tehsildar, Kanoongo, and Patwaris. They look after revenue work^. CREATION In the second half of the 18th century, a series of battles gave the British East India Company (BEIC) mastery over the area that is now Uttaranchal and western UP. The BEIC established an administration controlled by its senior officer in the region, the "Resident" of Delhi, to administer a political entity whose sovereignty was as ill-defined as its borders. For several reasons, the seat of administration was moved to Agra in 1834 and a "president" was appointed to govern the area. In 1836, the "North-western Provinces" was created, the name indicative of the fact that the area comprised the northwestern frontier of British India at that time. While that circumstance changed almost immediately afterwards, the name persisted until 1877. Meanwhile, in 1856, the BEIC annexed Avadh (Oudh), a large principality which covered much of what is now eastern UP; this area was merged with the existing British province to create a behemoth that was given a name commensurate with its size: the "United Provinces of the north-west and Oudh". In 1871, the district of Ajmer-Merwara, a British Indian enclave surrounded by native princely states of the Rajputana agency, was detached from this province and constituted a separate commissionership. In 1877, the province was renamed the "United Provinces of Agra and Oudh", dropping the now glaringly misplaced reference to the "northwest". However, it was generally referred to merely as "The United Provinces"; in 1902, the province was formally given that name. After India attained independence in 1947, the province was ^ Census of India-2001.(series-10,Uttar Pradesh) Provisional population figures,p-3 43

renamed "Uttar Pradesh", Hindi for "North Province". "Uttar" means "north" and "Pradesh" means "region" or "state". This name was proposed by Govind Ballabh Pant, noted freedom fighter and first chief minister of Uttar Pradesh; one reason for its adoption was certainly the fact that the abbreviation "U.P." by which the province had been referred to for a century, was retained. In 2000, the north-western hill districts of Uttar Pradesh were constituted into a separate state named Uttaranchal. POPULATION.With nearly 166 million'* inhabitants, Uttar Pradesh is not only the most populous state in India but also the most populous subnational entity in the world. Only five countries (the People's Republic of China, India itself, the USA, Indonesia and Brazil) have higher populations. It is also one of the most economically and socially backward states in India. On virtually every index of social development, whether literacy, infant mortality or unemployment, Uttar Pradesh ranks among one of the lowest in India; the situation is compounded by the fact that figures for females is invaribly much lower than for males on every parameter. LANGUAGES The languages of the different regions are distinct, and the language of the western parts, called (Khadiboli) is the basis for the official Hindi language, created during the late 19th century. The most commonly spoken language in urban areas is Urdu/Hindi. Regardless of the script used, the language of Lucknow is called Lucknowie Urdu. It is a pure form of literary Urdu used by most Urdu poets. Urdu is one of the two official languages of the state. Other languages are Koshali, Braj (which is more than two thousand years old), Koeli, Bagheli, Bundeli and Bhojpuri. The Bhojpuri ethnic homeland is divided " Census of India-2001,(series-10,Uttar Pradesh) Provisional population figures,p-2 44

between Nepal in the north, Bihar state in the east and Uttar Pradesh in the west. POLITICS The major political parties in the state are: Samajwadi Party, a Socialist party which is supported by backward classes and Muslims; Bharatiya Janata Party, a conservative Hindu nationalist party which is supported by the forward castes; and the Bahujan Samaj Party, a party which was formed to uplift India's untouchable castes, the dalits. It also banks on other backward castes and Muslims. Congress is another political party in the state but at present with a little vote bank.the state has a large number of village councils known as Panchayats just like the other states of India. One of the most developed Panchayat during 2001-2005 is Shahabad in Maharajganj District of Uttar Pradesh. EDUCATION The State of U.P. has made investments over the years in all sectors of education and has achieved some success. The female literacy situation in Uttar Pradesh is dismal. Only one out of four in the 7+ age group was able to read and write in 1991. This figure goes down to 19 % for rural areas, 11 % for the scheduled castes, 8 % for scheduled castes in rural areas, and 8 % for the entire rural population in the most educationally backward districts. Possibly Bihar is the only state in India which fares worse than U.P. in education. In terms of more demanding criteria of educational attainment on the completion of primary or secondary education, in Uttar Pradesh, in 1992-1993 only 50 % of literate males and 40 % of literate females could complete the cycle of eight years of schooling involved in the primary and middle stages. One other notable feature of the Uttar Pradesh education system is the persistence of high level of illiteracy in the younger age group. Within that age group, the illiteracy was endemic in the rural areas. In the late 1980s, the incidence of illiteracy in the 10-14 age group was as high as 32 % for rural males and 61 % for rural 45

females, and more than two-thirds of all rural girls in the 12-14 age group never went to school. Due to public apathy the schools are in disarray, privately run school (including those run by Christian missionaries) are functional, but beyond the reach of ordinary people. The State government has taken programmes to make the population totally literate. There are special programmes like World Bank aided DPEP. Steps are being taken with the help of NGOs and other organizations to raise popular participation. As a result, some progress in adult education has been made and the census of 2001 indicates a male literacy rate of 70.23 % and a female literacy rate of 42.98 %. TABLE: 7 LITERACY RATES BY SEX FOR STATE AND DISTRICTS SI. No. State/District Persons 1991 Persons 2001 Males 1991 Males 2001 Females 1991 Females 2001 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 UTTAR PRADESH SAHARANPUR MUZAFFARNAGAR BIJNOR MORADABAD RAMPUR JYOTIBA PHULE NAGAR MEERUT BAGHPAT GHAZIABAD GAUTAM BUDDHA NAGAR BULANDSHAHR ALIGARH HATHRAS MATHURA AGRA FIROZABAD ETAH MAINPURl BUDAUN BAREILLY PILIBHIT SHAHJAHANPUR KHERI SITAPUR HARDOI 40.71 42.11 44.00 40.55 30.67 25.37 31.96 52.41 48.69 54.43 51.66 46.00 44.94 46.32 44.85 48.58 46.30 40.15 50.29 24.64 32.88 32.10 32.07 29.71 31.41 36.30 57.36 62.61 61.68 59.37 45.74 38.95 50.21 65.96 65.65 70.89 69.78 60.19 59.70 63.38 62.21 64.97 66.53 56.15 66.51 38.83 47.99 50.87 48.79 49.39 49.12 52.64 54.82 53.85 56.63 52.57 40.35 33.79 44.98 64.88 63.52 67.15 69.12 63.51 59.96 62.36 61.95 63.09 59.76 54.09 64.34 33.96 43.44 44.37 42.68 40.58 43.10 49.45 70.23 72.26 73.11 70.18 56.66 48.62 63.49 76.31 78.60 81.04 82,56 75.55 73.22 77.17 77.60 79.32 77.81 69.13 78.27 49.85 59.12 63.82 60.53 61.03 61.02 65.08 24.37 28.10 29.12 26.50 19,03 1531 16.58 37,67 30.75 39.08 29.82 25.33 26.89 26.63 23.43 30.83 29.85 22.91 33.12 12.82 19.93 17.22 18.59 16.35 16.90 19.75 42.98 51.42 48.63 47.28 l_ 33.32 27.87 35.07 54.12 50.38 59.12 54.56 42.82 43.88 47.16 43.77 48.15 53.02 40.65 52.67 25.53 35.13 35.84 34.68 35.89 35.08 37.62 ' Census of India-2001,(series-10,Uttar Pradesh) Provisional population figures, p-vii 46

26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 UNNAO LUCKNOW RAE BARELI FARRUKHABAD KANNAUJ ETAWAH AURAIYA KANPURDEHAT KANPURNAGAR JALAUN JHANSI LALITPUR HAMIRPUR MAHOBA BANDA CHITRAKOOT FATEHPUR PRATAPGARH KAUSHAMBI ALLAHABAD BARA BANKI FAIZABAD AMBEDAKER NAGAR SULTANPUR BAHRAICH SHRAWASTI BALRAMPUR GONDA SIDDHARTHNAGAR BASTI SANTKABIR NAGAR MAHARAJGANJ GORAKHPUR KUSHINAGAR DEORIA AZAMGARH MAU BALLIA JAUNPUR GHAZIPUR CHANDAULI VARANASI SANT RAVIDAS NAGAR BHADOHl MIRZAPUR SONBHADRA 38.70 57.49 37.78 47.23 47.90 53.80 52.90 51.86 63.95 50.72 51.99 32.12 41.71 36.49 37.33 32.19 44.69 40.40 29.56 45.17 31.11 37.44 39.67 38.49 22.67 29.55 23.75 29.56 27.16 35.36 34.95 28.90 43.30 32.30 42.42 39.19 43.80 43.89 42.22 43.27 44.81 51.88 40.02 39.68 34.40 55.72 69.39 55.09 62.27 62.57 70.75 71.50 66.59 77.63 66.14 66.69 49.93 58.10 54.23 54.84 66.06 59.74 58.67 48.18 62.89 48.71 57.48 59.06 56.90 35.79 34.25 34.71 42.99 43.97 54.28 51.71 47.72 60.96 48.43 59.84 56.15 64.86 58.88 59.98 60.06 61.11 67.09 59.14 56.10 49.96 51.63 66.51 53.30 59.37 59.29 66.24 65.76 64.56 72.92 66.21 67.32 45.23 57.86 50.98 53.06 48.06 59.87 60.29 45.18 61.85 43.71 52.42 55.17 55.08 32.27 44.91 34.43 43.48 40.92 50.93 51.83 45.67 60.61 49.57 61.48 56.11 59.44 60.76 62.24 61.48 61.43 66.66 60.77 54.75 47.56 67.62 76.63 69.03 72.40 73.38 81.15 81.18 76.84 82.08 79.14 80.11 64.45 72.76 66.83 69.89 78.75 73.07 74.61 63.49 77.13 60.12 70.73 71.93 71.85 46.32 47.27 46.28 56.93 58.68 68.16 67.85 65.40 76.70 65.35 76.31 70.50 78.97 73.15 77.16 75.45 75.55 83.66 77.99 70.51 63.79 23.62 46.88 21.01 32.30 33.88 38.67 37.04 36.32 52.91 31.60 33.95 16.62 22.07 19.09 17.90 13.37 27.24 20.48 11.53 25.72 15.99 20.56 23.30 20.74 11.01 10.57 11.22 13.42 11.95 18.08 16.76 10.28 24.49 13.86 23.58 22.64 27.86 26.13 22.39 24.38 26.28 35.00 16.80 22.32 18,65 42.40 61.22 40.44 50.35 49.99 58.49 60.08 54.49 72.50 50.66 51.21 33.25 40.65 39.57 37.10 51.28 44.62 42.63 30.80 46.61 35.64 43.35 45.98 41.81 23.27 18.75 21.58 27.29 28.35 39.00 35.45 28.64 44.48 30.85 43.56 42.44 50.86 43.92 43.53 44.39 45.45 48.59 38.72 39.89 34.26 Note - * Literacy rate is the percentage of literates to population aged 7 years and above. 47

At the level of higher education and technical education Uttar Pradesh has 16 general universities, famous among those are Uttar Pradesh Technical University (UPTU), Allahabad University, Banaras Hindu University and Aligarh Muslim University, one prestigeous Indian Institute of Technology (Kanpur), one Indian Institute of Management (Lucknow), one Indian Institute of Information Technology (Allahabad), one National Institute of Technology (Allahabad) and large number engineering institutes and industrial training institutes. TOURISM Uttar Pradesh attracts a large number of both national and international visitors. There are two regions in the state where a majority of the tourists go. 1 hese are the city of Agra and the holy cities on the banks of the Ganges River that include Kanpur, Allahabad and Varanasi. A vast number of tourists visit the Taj Mahal in Agra. Other important tourist attractions in Agra are the Agra Fort. Also famous is a 16th century capital city built by the Mughal emperor Akbar known as Fatehpur Sikri near Agra. Millions of tourists and piligrims visit the cities of Allahabad and Varanasi, as they are considered to be two of the holiest cities in India. Every year thousands gather at Allahabad to take part in the festival on the banks of the Ganges, the Magh Mela. The same festival is organised in a larger scale every 12th year and attracts millions of people and is called the Kumbha Mela. Varanasi is widely considered to be the second oldest city in the world after Jerusalem. It is famous for its ghats (steps along the river) which are populated year round with people who want to take a dip in the holy Ganges River. About 13 km from Varanasi is the historically important town of Samath. Gautama Buddha gave his first sermon at Samath after his enlightenment and hence is an important pilgrimage site for the Buddhists. Also at Samath are the Ashoka Pillar and the Lion Capital, both important archeological artifacts which have national significance. 48

ARTS AND CRAFTS: Uttar Pradesh is famous for its arts and crafts. Specific regions such as Varanasi for its saris and silk, Mirzapur for its carpets, Agra and Kanpur for their leathercraft, Moradabad for its metalware, Lucknow for its clothwork and embroidery, and the entire state for its pottery are not only famous in India but around the world. PHYSIOGRAPHY: The state can be divided into three physical division: (A) Bhabar and Tarai Belt: The region is extended from east to west at the lower part of the Shiwalik ranges situated in the narrow belt with 35-40 km broad in the north of the Tarai area and is fully composed of Kankar and boulders, which is known Bhabar. The level, damp and marshy land in a parallel from along the narrow belt below the Bhabar is known as Tarai belt, extending from Saharanpur in the north- west to Deoria in the east comprising the northern part of Saharanpur, Bijnor, Bareilly, Pilibhit, Lakhimpur (kheri), Behraich, Gonda, Basti, Gorakhpur, and Deoria districts. Rice and sugarcane is grown in this area. (B) Ganga Jamuna Plain: In the south of Bhabar and Tarai belt, lies the plain if Ganga and its tributaries, which has been formed of mud, clay and sand brought by the Yamuna, Ram Ganga, Gomti, Ghagra, Sharda, and Gandak, the tributaries of Ganga. The area is fertile and the clay soil is deep up to 4500 meters. The plain is slopp} from north-west to south east, with steep gradient towards the east. Structurally as well as lithologically the area can be divided into two parts- 49

(1) Bangar land: Bangar land is an elevated piece of land, where the flooded water cannot reach. Due to agricultural use of land for hundreds of years, the fertility of Bangar land has been reduced. (2) Khadar land: It is a lowland area where the flood water deposits the soil layer every year. Marshy land is found in khadar areas. Due to change in soil every year, the land is fertile. The Ganga-Jamuna plain can be sub divided into 5 parts- (1) The Ganga Jamuna Doab (2) Ganga Gomti Doab (3) Gomti Ghagra Doab (4) Trans Ghagra area (5) Rohil Khand plain (C) Plateau Region of the South: In the south of the Ganga-Yamuna plain is the plateau region of the state, known as Bundelkhand plateau, which includes Jhansi, Jalaum, Banda, and Hamirpur districts, part of Allahabad and Karchana tehsil of Allahabad district with an area of 45,200 km square. It is the northern extensive portion of peninsular India, Vindhyan ranges are stretched in the plateau region. The Kaimur series at this plateau region is extended up to Chunar and Vindhyachal areas in the south east of Mirzapur district of the state. Chambal, Betwa, Son, Ken and Tons are main rivers of the state. Narrow valleys are found in the river areas of plateau. The major part of this region is not worth cultivable; the 50

cultivation is done only in plain areas. Rainfall is scanty here, dry farming is done. (4) Climate: The climate of Uttar Pradesh, by and large, can be categorized as tropical monsoon type with the notable exceptions of the Himalayan tracts where rising altitudes render it of temperate type. In the Himalayan regions, there are three main seasons, the summer, prevails from April to mid June, the rainy season covers the period from late June to early September and the winter, from September to march. This classification notwithstanding, the sowing and harvesting times exhibit local variations according to altitudes. "The hot and dry westerly called loo start blowing from March up to June throughout the province with lesser effect in foothill and Himalayan areas. The westerlies in winter accompanied with western depression and drizzle cause cold waves and at some places the temperature falls below freezing point. About 5 percent of rainfall occurs during winters. The average annual rainfall in plains varies fi-om 40 to 200cm. Tarai receives about 120 cm, eastern U.P. 100 to 200 cm, western U.P. 60 to 100 cm and the plateau area from 100 to 120 cm rain yearly"^. FLORA AND FAUNA: "A wide spatial variation exists in U.P. from evergreen conifers in the Himalayas to deciduous trees plains in the scrub in plateau areas. Only in the Ganga plain, grasses of 220 varieties have been studied besides a number of medicinal herbs. Corresponding and spatial variation in animal and bird fauna also exists. Excepting coastal fauna and flora, all others occur at one or the other place of the state"''. ^ People of India-Uttar Pradesh-Vol-XLII-part-1,by Anthropological Survey of India (Manohar) 2005p-4-5 ^ Ibid, p-5 51

Main Crops of the State: (1) Wheat Wheat is the main crop of the state sown in October and November and harvested in March and April when the temperature suddenly increases due to westerly winds. Ganga Jamuna and Ganga Ghagra Doab are the main wheat producing areas. (2) Rice Rice is also the main product of the state. The state produces 13.60 % of the country's production of rice. (3) Bajra Where the arid climate is found the Bajra is produced, specially the average rainfall is below 50cms, the crop also needs a little irrigation. It is sown in between May and July and harvested in between September to December. Areas are Agra Mathura, Budaun, Aligarh, Morahabad, Etah, Etawah, Ghazipur, Farrukhbad etc. (4) Barley Uttar Pradesh stands first in barley production. Varanasi, Azamgarh, Ballia, Mau, Ghazipur, Allahabad, Jaunpur etc are the main districts. (5) Gram Gram is produced in small quantity. Main areas are Banda, Hamipur, Jhansi, Lalitpur, Kanpur, Allahabad, Agra etc. (6) Sugarcane Being a cash crop, state ranks first in its production. It produces 45% of the country's totle production 52

(7) Ground Nut Sitapur, Hardoi, Etah, Bodaun, Moradabad are the districts where its cultivation is done in small area. (8) Mustard The state ranks first in its production. The main areas are Gonda, Bahraich, Mirzapur, Sombhadra, Kanpur, Saharanpur, Etah, Aligarh etc. (9) Maize Meerut, Ghaziabad, Bulandshahar, Farrukhabad, Bahraich, Gonda, Jaunpur, Etah, Firozabad are the Districts where the maize is produced. (10) Potatoes The state ranks first in its production in the country; it contributes approximately 40 percent of the total production of the potatoes in the country. 53