KUKI IDENTITY, LAND-USE, AUTHORITY, AND ETHNIC- NATIONALISM IN MANIPUR, INDIA by NGAMJAHAO KIPGEN DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL SCIENCES Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DELHI MAY 2012
CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled, Kuki Identity, Land-use, Authority, and Ethnic- Nationalism in Manipur, India, being submitted by Mr. Ngamjahao Kipgen to the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi for the award of degree of Doctor of Philosophy is a record of original bonafide research carried by him under my supervision and guidance. The thesis work has reached the requisite standards and is worthy of consideration for the award of degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The findings in the thesis have not been submitted in part or in full to another university or institute for the award of any degree or diploma. Date: May 15, 2012 Place: IIT Delhi Dr. Vibha Arora Department of Humanities & Social Sciences Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, INDIA New Delhi-110016
Acknowledgement The writing of my doctoral thesis has inevitably and happily resulted in a number of debts. This thesis would not have seen the light of the day had it been left to the researcher alone. To begin with, I sincerely express my gratitude to my Supervisor, Dr. Vibha Arora for her constant encouragement and her constructive criticism at many critical points in the course of developing and refining my ideas and arguments and how to write this thesis and present my data. I benefited immensely from her guidance and suggestions which exerted positive influence on my thinking that shapes each and every chapter of my study. Next, I have to acknowledge the assistance and guidance to me by staffs and librarians of different institutions during the course of collecting materials for my thesis. They are Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Library, Jawaharlal Nehru University (Central Library), Nehru Museum and Library (Teen Murti), Ratan Tata Library (Delhi University), North East Hills University (Shillong), Manipur University (Imphal). Further I would like to thank those friends and well-wishers who offered different kinds of help to me. Elvis DJ Haokip had been extremely helpful by painstakingly accompanying me while collecting data in Churachandpur district. George Hethang Haokip had been ever ready to give assistance without any hesitation whenever I needed him. My friend Enock had been hospitable in providing accommodation and helps me during my fieldwork in Tuilang area (Senapati district). I feel indebted to friends in the JNU Campus (New Delhi) who unceasingly remember me at the Friday Prayer Cell of the Kuki Worship Service (KWS) Delhi. Last but not the least, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to all the members of my family particularly my beloved parents (Heno & Hepa), my aunt (Heni Lhingnekim) and uncle (Hegang Manglianthang) for all the sacrifices they have made to help me go ahead ii
with my academic pursuits. However, I alone am accountable for this final edition of the paper and therefore the usual disclaimer applies. Finally, I thank IIT Delhi for providing me financial assistance to pursue my doctoral research. I dedicate this thesis to my dearest grandpa, Hepu Mangpithang Kipgen (ex-ina & ex-mla), who inspired me in every aspect of life! Ngamjahao Kipgen iii
Abstract Land and ethnic identity issues have seriously impacted and fuelled ethnic conflict and secessionist movements in Northeast India. Today Manipur state in Northeast India is not only suffering from innumerable ethnic armed movements but also from a complex ethnic crisis. The main inhabitants comprise the Meitei, Naga and Kuki. The harmonious existence of the state is being threatened as the interests of one group clash with the other. This has given rise to assertion of group identity, inter group competition for resources, political instability, insecurity and underdevelopment. An understanding of the ongoing crisis requires a serious study of the growth (politics) of identity formation and growth of ethno-nationalism. This thesis explains the growth and process of Kuki identity by drawing largely from historical materials (primary and secondary) and based on my ethnographic fieldwork. Traditional land use and control over resources has shaped ethnic identity of the Kukis. Land use and control of land is the basic foundation of the social, cultural, economic and political life of the Kuki tribes. Within a given village territory, traditional values, belief and cultural practices of the Kukis even today regulate their everyday life. Landscapes have become the critical arena for expression of Kuki identity and their ethnic struggles against the Nagas and others in the region. The political economy of land and rituals associated in jhumming shapes the Kuki cultural identity. My thesis analyses the political economy of control over land and socio-religious practices connected with it among the Kukis to analyse their politics of identity. Also, the socio-cultural practices connected to their land use have been recently revived and politicized in order to organise their ethnic-nationalism. I conclude by raising the need for safeguarding their ethnic distinctiveness and addressing their aspirations for territorial autonomy or Kuki homeland within the Indian federalism. iv
CONTENTS CONTENTS Certificate Acknowledgement Abstract List of Plates List of Maps List of Tables Glossary Abbreviations Page No. i ii iv ix xi xii xiii xvii 1. Chapter-1 Introduction 1 1.1 Demographic Profile and Location of the Study 4 1.2 Research Objectives and Premises 14 1.3 The Central Argument 18 1.4 Conceptual Framework of my Ethnographic Research 19 1.5 Literature on the Kukis and the Existing Gaps therein 30 1.6 Research Methodology 36 1.7 Organization of the Thesis 43 2. Chapter-2 Kuki Identity and Ethnicity in Manipur 47 1.2 Ethnogeneses in Manipur 48 2.2 Locating and Identifying the Kuki Tribe 55 2.3 Segmentary Lineages and Territorial Attachment 61 2.3.1 The Village Organisation 64 2.3.2 The Kinship Organisation 65 v
2.4 Identity Formation and Shifting of Ethnic Allegiances 70 2.5 Evolution of Kuki Identity 76 3. Chapter-3 Land, Forest, and Kuki Society: Interdependence and Change 81 3.1 Relationship of Land and Identity 82 3.2 The Village, Jhumming Land and Organisation of Labour 85 3.3 Simple Technology Involved in Jhumming 90 3.3.1 Agricultural Calendar 98 3.4 Use of Forest Land 101 3.5 Importance of Landscape for Identity Formation 105 4. Chapter-4 Socio-Cultural Practices of the Kukis Related to Jhum 114 4.1 Hun Ritual 117 4.2 Rituals of the Jhum Fields and the Forest 121 4.2.1 Lou-mun san Ritual 123 4.2.2 Twikhuh thoina Ritual 124 4.2.3 Daiphu Ritual 125 4.3 The Ritual of Paddy Deity and the Symbolic Significance of Paddy 129 4.3.1 Chang-lha kou (Pleasing the Souls of the Paddy) 131 4.4 Tolsuo Ritual 132 4.4.1 Sha-ai Ritual 134 4.4.2 Chang-ai Ritual 137 4.5 Harvesting Festival 140 5. Chapter-5 Kuki Cosmology and Relevance of Indigenous Knowledge 147 5.1 Kuki Cosmology and the Thiempu 150 5.2 Indoi Symbolism 157 vi
5.3 Nature Symbolism among the Kukis 160 5.4 Impact of Christianity on Kuki Religious Practices 170 5.5 Revival of Kuki Religion as Expression of their Indigenous Knowledge 173 6. Chapter-6 Kuki Chieftainship and the Impact of Democracy 178 6.1 Traditional Chieftainship System: Origin and Evolution 182 6.2 Chiefs and the Traditional Administration of the Village Community 186 6.3 Indigenous Law and Traditional System of Governance 196 6.4 British Rule and Administration of Kuki villages until 1947 201 6.5 Laws Sustaining and Undermining Chieftainship after 1947 205 6.6 Traditional Authority in Hill Politics of Contemporary Manipur 209 6.7 Relevance of Kuki Chieftainship in Contemporary Manipur 213 7. Chapter-7 Kuki Ethnic-Nationalism and Kuki-Naga Conflict in Contemporary Manipur 219 7.1 Kuki Nationalism in the Colonial Period 224 7.1.1 The Kuki Chiefs and the Rebellion 225 7.2 Factors Responsible for the Kuki Insurgency Movements 230 7.3 Formation of Kuki Insurgency Groups during the 1980s 236 7.4 Politics of Contiguous Homeland: Kuki-Naga Conflict 244 7.4.1 Ethnic Cleansing in Manipur 247 7.4.2 The Kukis Response to Ethnic Violence 251 7.5 Reconstruction of Kuki Identity and Ethnic Nationalism 256 Conclusion 259 Chronology of Events 269 vii
APPENDICES Appendix I 273 Appendix II 275 Appendix III 276 Appendix IV 277 Appendix V 279 Appendix VI 281 Appendix VII 283 Appendix VIII 285 Bibliography 288 BRIEF BIO-DATA 315 viii