KLAIPEDA UNIVERSITY LITHUANIAN INSTITUTE OF HISTORY. Dovilė TROSKOVAITĖ

KLAIPEDA UNIVERSITY LITHUANIAN INSTITUTE OF HISTORY Dovilė TROSKOVAITĖ FORMATION OF POLISH AND LITHUANIAN KARAITE IDENTITY IN THE 19 th 20 th CENTURIES: BETWEEN SEPARATION AND ADAPTATION Summary of Doctoral Dissertation Hummanities, History (05 H) Klaipėda 2014

The Doctoral Dissertation was prepared at Klaipeda University during 2009-2014. Supervisor: Dr. Darius Staliūnas (Lithuanian Institute of History, Humanities, History 05 H) Adviser: Assoc. prof. dr. Jurgita Verbickienė (Vilnius University, Humanities, History 05 H) Doctoral Dissertation is being defended at the Academic Board of History Science at Klaipeda University and the Lithuanian Institute of History: Chairman: Assoc. prof. dr. Vygantas Vareikis (Klaipeda University, Humanities, History 05 H) Members: Assoc. prof. dr. Saulius Kaubrys (Vilnius University, Humanities, History 05 H) Dr. Rimantas Miknys (Lithuanian Institute of History, Humanities, History 05 H) Assoc. prof. dr. Egdūnas Račius (Vytautas Magnus University, Social Sciences, Political sciences 02 S) Dr. Vasilijus Safronovas (Klaipeda University, Humanities, History 05 H) Opponents: Prof. hab. dr. Tamara Bairašauskaitė (Lithuanian Institute of History, Humanities, History 05 H) Dr. Larisa Lempertienė (Vilnius University, Humanities, History 05 H) The Dissertation will be defended at the public meeting of the Academic Board of History at Klaipeda University at 1 p.m. on 3 rd October, 2014. Address: Herkaus Manto st. 84, 92294 Klaipėda, Lithuania. Summary of Doctoral Dissertation was distributed on 3 rd September, 2014. The Doctoral Dissertation is available for review at the libraries of Klaipėda University and Lithuanian Institute of History. 2

KLAIPĖDOS UNIVERSITETAS LIETUVOS ISTORIJOS INSTITUTAS Dovilė TROSKOVAITĖ LENKIJOS IR LIETUVOS KARAIMŲ SAVIVOKOS FORMAVIMAS XIX A. VIDURYJE XX A. PIRMOJE PUSĖJE: TARP ATSISKYRIMO IR PRISITAIKYMO Daktaro disertacijos santrauka Humanitariniai mokslai, istorija, (05 H) Klaipėda 2014 3

Mokslinis vadovas: Dr. Darius Staliūnas (Lietuvos istorijos institutas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija 05 H) Mokslinė konsultantė: Doc. dr. Jurgita Verbickienė (Vilniaus universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija 05 H) Disertacija ginama Klaipėdos universiteto ir Lietuvos istorijos instituto istorijos mokslo krypties taryboje: Pirmininkas: Doc. Dr. Vygantas Vareikis (Klaipėdos universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija 05 H) Nariai: Doc. dr. Saulius Kaubrys (Vilniaus Universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija 05 H) Dr. Rimantas Miknys (Lietuvos istorijos institutas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija 05 H) Doc. dr. Egdūnas Račius (Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas, socialiniai mokslai, politikos mokslai 02 S) Dr. Vasilijus Safronovas (Klaipėdos universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija 05 H) Oponentai: Prof. hab. dr. Tamara Bairašauskaitė (Lietuvos istorijos institutas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija 05 H) Dr. Larisa Lempertienė (Vilniaus Universitetas, humanitariniai mokslai, istorija 05 H) Disertacija ginama viešame Istorijos mokslo krypties tarybos posėdyje 2014 m. spalio 3 d. 13 val. Klaipėdos universitete. Adresas: Herkaus Manto g. 84, 92294 Klaipėda, Lietuva. Disertacijos santrauka išsiųsta 2014 m. rugsėjo 3 d. Disertaciją galima peržiūrėti Klaipėdos universiteto ir Lietuvos istorijos instituto bibliotekose. 4

SUMMARY OF DOCTORAL DISSERTATION The research of identities that began in sociology and anthropology becomes more and more important for historians. The field of such research includes nations and communities, transformation of their collective identity and its expression. The newest studies of collective identities 1 allow us to define a phenomenon of identity ideology and speak about competition and sometimes even conflict between different identity ideologies. Understanding of this phenomenon is very important when Karaite collective identity is analyzed, especially when it comes to the impact of different identity ideologies to the self-identity of the Karaites and competition between these ideologies from the end of the 19 th century to the middle of the 20 th century. Research object By conducting this research I aim to examine how the collective identity of Polish and Lithuanian Karaite have changed: how the identity ideology was created and what motivated its appearance, in what way it was expressed and legitimized by community (especially its leaders) from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century? Accordingly, a question why this small group represented itself to surrounding society by giving 1 Safronovas V., Praeitis kaip konflikto šaltinis. Tapatybės ideologijų konkurencija XX a. Klaipėdoje, Vilnius, 2011, p. 11 51 5

priority to their origin, rather than any other identity marker, and what were other attributes of Karaite collective identity, which distinguished them from strangers, is raised. One more important aspect is to reconstruct the role the dominating Christian society in the transformation of Karaite collective identity did it create suitable surroundings for the Karaite identity to exist and transform? And did it legitimize the collective identity ideology of Karaite community in the Christian cultural area? The Relevance of the Study The questions of ethnic origins of East European Karaites as well as changes of its understanding in Karaite communities have already been examined by several researchers. 2 Probably the most important aspect in the field was revealed by Roman Freund. He elaborated the term dejudaization 3 for the phenomenon, which was evident in the Karaite community in Eastern Europe (thought the main focus was on Crimean Karaites). Though all of the studies were important to understand the development of Karaite self-perception, one should notice the fact, that in most cases the attention is paid to 2 M. Kizilov published many articles and books on this topic. One of the newest and most important of his books: Kizilov M., The Karaites of Galicia: An Ethnoreligious Minority among the Ashkenazim, the Turks, and the Slavs, 1772 1945, Leiden-Boston, 2009 3 Freund R., Karaites and dejudaization. A historical Review of an Endogenous and Exogenous Paradigm, Stockholm, 1991 6

the Crimean Karaites, presuming that the Lithuanian and Polish communities experienced the same changes of self-perceptions and models of behavior. However, the careful research of the social and cultural processes in these communities may show the differences from the changes experienced in Crimea. Another important aspect, which requires additional research, is the entire context, in which the collective Karaite identity was changed and new identity ideology was born. It includes the interaction and dependence of all elements of identity ideology language, faith and ethnic origin, and, what was not revealed in previous studies, the impact of cultural and social processes in other non-christian communities Tatars and Jews to the Karaite self-perception. The study by Dan Shapira of the Tatar elements in the worldview of the Christian society of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania 4 could have served as a good impulse for such considerations. Whereas the Modernization of Jewish community, which was evident in the 18 th 19 th centuries, and its role in the formation of Polish and Lithuanian Karaite self-perception was never taken into account by researchers. However, it seems rational to think that all different groups in the society are related to each other in one way or another and experience mutual impact. Due to this, the Jewish 4 Shapira D., Turkism, Polish Sarmatism and Jewish szlachta : Some Reflections on a Cultural Context of the Polish-Lithuanian Karaites, Karadeniz Araştırmaları (Black Sea Studies), Sayı: 20, Kış 2009, p. 29 43. 7

and Tatar communities and Christian society should be taken into account when Karaite self-perception is examined. The incorporation of these aspects into research of development of Karaite self-identity and creation of their collective identity ideology would allow to reconstruct a broader view of this phenomenon and, what is more important, could serve for consideration of the mechanism of formation of the modern collective self-identity of stateless non- Christian communities, who live in Diaspora, and to perceive some particularities of this process among different groups of such kind. The research of Polish and Lithuanian Karaite identity transition is important when it comes to the historiography examinating history and culture of Eastern European Karaites, particularly Polish and Lithuanian communities. Most of the studies contain some historiographical cliché, directly related to the Karaite identity ideology, which were formed in the first half of the 20 th century by Karaite ideologists. Analyzing the process of formation of Karaite identity ideology and the change of their collective indentity would help to critically evaluate historiographical tendencies, reexamine their statements from different perspective. In order to reveal the complexity of the discussed process, all above mentioned aspects need to be examined. 8

The aims of the research: 1. To identify what reasons encouraged the need of the collective Karaite self-idenity transition, what directions of development were possible and what was Karaite reaction to this process. 2. To reconstruct the scheme of Karaite identity ideology, to examine its content and interaction among its elements from the second half of the 19 th until the middle of the 20 th century. 3. To analyze expression and spread of the Karaite identity ideology, its entrenchment in the collective memory of Polish and Lithuanian Karaites, as well as in the understanding of dominating society and academic discource. Tasks of the research are the following: 1. To identify the factors, that caused the changes in collective Karaite identity from the second half of the 19 th century until the middle of the 20 th century. 2. To analyze the appearance of the history, as a way to discover past, in the Karaite community and its role in formation of collective Karaite self-perception. 3. To evaluate the importance of the need to integrate into the dominating society for the development of Karaite selfidentity in the first half of the 20 th century. 4. To examine the biography and activities of the chief Polish hacham and one of the most prominent Karaite leaders in Eastern 9

Europe Seraja Szapszał and to evaluate his influence to the formation of the content of Karaite identity ideology. 5. To reconstruct the plot of Karaite historical myth and its development, and the possible cultural impact of other non- Christian communities to this process. 6. To determine the local variations of Karaite historical myth and its symbols, focusing on the image of Historical Homeland and its transformations in the Karaite identity ideology. To determine other important cultural symbols and their interaction with the historical myth. 7. To reveal the importance of Karaite communal press in spreading and entrenching Karaite identity ideology in communal memory in the first half of the 20 th century. 8. To reconstruct the means and ways of expressing the Karaite identity ideology and to give assumptions on the possible scale of its entrenchment among community members. 9. To examine the formation of Karaite studies in Lithuania and Poland and its possible relation to the Karaite identity ideology in the 20 th century. The chronology of the implemented research can be placed between the second half of the 19 th century and first half of the 20 th century. This periodisation is conditional, because the process of identity transition did not have an exact beginning date, and taking 10

into account the complexity and unstable character of identity in general, the process can be understood as endless. Such chronological framework was determined by several factors. The most important among them is the available sources. The first document, which gives us evidence about the Karaite efforts to separate themselves from Jewish Rabbanite community, dates back to the last years of the 18 th century. Even though, the declared separation was superficial, it marked the beginning of the changes that were evident in the Karaite community during the whole 19 th century. This period marked the formation of classical opposition between us and them and the first attempts to search for cultural symbols, to express this opposition. This process was not always smooth because of both the lack of communal communication, and insufficient cultural environment, and lack of symbols, which could express uniqueness of the Karaites. But when the First World War ended and the geopolitical situation changed, Karaite separation from Rabbanite Jews was strengthened, which led to the further changes in the community s self-identity. These changes meant the formation of modern, secular, collective national identity, which took place approximately during the whole first half of the 20 th century. The last date of the research chronology is 1940, when Karaite community was officialy abandoned by Soviet administration and the Karaite hacham had to leave his duty. This meant the formal elimination of Karaite religious community from the active existence and religious practice. However, some of the 11

Szapszał s later works are examined to show the maintenance of the identity ideology and its further entrenchment in the Polish and Lithuanian historiography. Though research chronology begins in the 19 th century, it does not mean that the process of segregation form Jewish Rabbanite community and a need to approve it should be understood as the birth of new collective identity in the community. This process can be described as a need to find the most comfortable and suitable way of existence in the new social and cultural surroungings, which appeared after the last partition of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland when Karaites became subjects of Russian Empire. A turning point of formation of collective Karaite identity and its ideology should be 1911, when an article on Karaite national self-perception appeared in communal newspaper Караимская Жизнь (Karaite life). 5 But the started process was suspended by the First World War, after which the Karaites, former subjects of Russian Empire, became citizens of Lithuania (Panevėžys city and surrounding areas), Poland (Wilno, Troki, Luck, Halicz), and Ukraine (later Ukrainian SSR). It is paradoxical, but only Polish Karaites had possibility to formally actualize themselves as a separate ethnic group. Lithuanian Constitution secured equal rights to all citizens without distinction by 5 Кокизов Д., Националъное самосознание, in: Караимская жизнь, кн. 3 4, 1911, c. 21 34. 12

social status or religion, and did not require any special legislation for ethnic, national and religious minorities, with only one exception Jewish authonomy. When Ukraine became socialist respublic (1922 1991) local Karaite community had very limited possibilities for their religious, cultural and communal activities and strengthening of their identity. Whereas most religious and ethnic groups in Poland needed separate legislation of their communal life and its organization. 6 In this way the state gave an opportunity for Karaite community to represent their identity and achieve its legitimation in the eyes of the dominating society ant its authorities. This does not mean that in other countries Karaites did not recognize their uniqueness and distinctiveness from other groups this was already evident in the 19 th century but it was Polish Karaites who managed to elaborate new identity ideology and to spread it over communities. Methodology of the Research The research was implemented by using traditional methods of history science analysis of the sources and phenomena comparison. Taking into account the religious, cultural, and in the case of Polish and Lithuanian Karaites, even legal relations between Karaite and Rabbanite communities until 19 th century, it was important to compare cultural processes in these communities in the 6 There was a formula, which was used as a basis for all laws, issued for each ethnic or religious community. 13

19 th century and to investigate their relation to the formation of the Karaite self-dentity and its ideology. With regard to the historical period, the historical context of Eastern Europe and comparatively rapid and radical change of the Karaite identity, it was refered to the nationalism studies to reconstruct the transition of the collective Karaite identity. It is assumed that: 1) the nature of Karaite identity was determined by the type of nationalism, that prevailed in the region and the example of nations, which formed on the basis of language and ethnicity; 2) the main impulse for transformation of collective Karaite identity was the rapid change of their social status in the end of the 18 th century, the whole 19 th century and the first half of the 20 th century and the need to adjust to these changes as well as to the changing surroundings of dominating society; 3) the Karaite identity ideology holds the same features, that are typical to the identity of regional nationalism, with an exception of state seeking. 4) a relatively rapid and radical change of community s identity was determined by the fact that the ideology was created and spread by the same people community s elite. By checking these assumptions the research aims to find the suitable approach to investigate the transition of Karaite identity and its ideology. 14

In sociology and history nationalism is usually attributed to the statehood. 7 But Rogger Brubaker in his famous critics to the studies of nationalism argued, that one of the biggest mistakes in this field of research is the orientation to the nation states, when the other groups are left aside, though their national policy is very similar to that of the states. He argues that the formation of nation requires much more than only formal statehood and the groups, which remained stateless, should nevertheless be included into nationalism studies. 8 He identified four types of non state seeking nationalism, typical to the Central and Eastern Europe. One of them nationalism of national minorities is very important for implemented research. 9 Though the author used an example of Russian national minority in Europe, who has their mother country but does not live in it, the characteristics of this type of nationalism can be applied in wider context. It says that minority nationalism experiences its identity as specifically national, not only ethnical and requires that this nationality would be accepted by the state. 10 This means that minority 7 Hobsbawn E., Nations and Nationalism since 1780: programme, myth, reality, Cambridge, 1990, p. 8 10; Gellner E., Nations and Nationalism, Oxford, 1983, p. 3 5. 8 Brubaker R., Myths and Misconceptions in the Study of Nationalism, in: The State of the Nation: Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism, Ed. John Hall, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, p. 278. 9 Ibidem, p. 278 280. 10 Ibidem, p. 279. 15

nationalism contains two fundamental elements national identity and its recognition by the dominating society. Though R. Brubaker applied this type of nationalism to the groups, who live outside their countries, in this research it is attributed to the stateless Karaite community, who dwell in Diaspora. The process of formation of collective Karaite identity to what Brubaker classified as minority nationalism can be justified by several important facts. Firstly, like the author states, nationalism can exist beyond the statehood a political reality, manifestated by relation between state and its subjects if it refers to national identity. In the first half of the 20 th century Karaites had focused their identity to the imagined historical Homeland and filled it (identity) with the national content. The community formulated their political ambitions a need of cultural authonomy in Poland as if it was a nation, though statehood was never a target. Secondly, the Karaite identity ideology, when formulated, was accepted and legitimated by the state, which gave Karaites a status of national minority and affirmed it in legal legislation. 11 Undoubtedly, the formation of collective Karaite identity and its ideology was strongly affected by the the processes that were visible in the region entrenchment of nationalism, birth of national 11 1935, Ustawa s stosunku Państwa do Karaimskiego Związku Religijnego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej (The law regulating relations between the State of Poland and Karaite Religious Community) Archiwum Akt Nowych, MWRiOP, syg. 1961, l. 445 450. 16

states which formed their attitude to how nation should look like, what it needs to have that its members would feel their relation to each other and belonging to the same nation, and that needs to be done that this nation would be recognized by surrounding dominating society. It is important to note that nations in Eastern Europe were formed on the basis of ethnic origin. Contrary to English or French nations, who associated themselves with the state, newly born Eastern European nations, like Czechs, identified themselves with language and common origin. All these processes of the 20 th century Europe showed a model of nation, which appeared to be an acceptable way of behaviuor for Karaite community, who began to form their collective identity ideology on the basis of common language and origin and consolidated Karaites into unified community, featuring long and heroic history. The legitimization of the minority identity ideology had to be achieved through political activity. Already in the 19 th century the Karaite elite acted in political arena to ensure institutional and social segregation from Rabbanite community, which strengthened relations between community members and encouraged development of their collective identity. When political atmosphere in the 20 th century changed, the community had to find new ways to legitimize its existence. They succeeded in the 3 rd 4 th decades, when Polish government issued a law, which regulated legal status of this minority and its internal organization. In this way, the state recognized Karaites 17

as a separate group and provided them with the right to practice their identity. It is important to note that the political activity of Karaite elite and achieved cultural authonomy much exceeded community s size. Having several hundreds of members, scattered in distant regions, the community had little opportunities to organize into political organization and achieve direct representation in the state s parlament, but this circumstance did not have negative effect in seeking for political goals. On the contrary, community s participation in the political activities shows that Karaite elite was able to select cultural symbols and shape identity ideology, in the way, which helped them to achieve their goal a state secured and supported cultural authonomy. Actualization of cultural symbols for the sake of political goals made these symbols important, promoted them among community members and included them into community s historical myth. All above mentioned aspects importance of political activity, national self-perception, adoptation a blueprint of ethnicity and language based nationalism gives a ground to expand the classification of minority nationalism by R. Brubaker. The examples, discussed in the thesis, shows that minority nationalism can be attributed to the community, which a) does not have a mother state and does not foster the ambition of territorial soveregnity because of long term Diaspora experience, but despite that the image of Homeland in their culture is strong enough to maintain a myth of 18

common origin and to validate it; b) being non Christian forms its identity by adopting a blueprint of a nation and adjusting it to their religious tradition; c) developed in Modern times from religious community and formed national identity of its own. The implemented research shows that despite community s political activity, formation of national self identity, Karaites differs significantly from nations with established statehood, which gained international political recognition. With this difference on the one hand and importance of national identity, experienced by the Karaites, on the other, it can be stated that the most suitable term to name such group is national group. Statements to be defended: 1. The formation of collective identity of Polish and Lithuanian Karaites should be analyzed in the context of nationalism, paying attention to characteristic features of Eatern Europe (as a region) and Modernity (as a period of time). An ethnosymbolistic approach can be used to analyze how the elements of identity were manipulated, transformed or rejected in the course of creation of identity ideology. The relations between different ethnic and religiouse groups, intercomunication and processes faced by the Tatar and Jewish communities should be taken into account. It is assumed that the impact of the latter influenced the transformation of Karaite self-identity. 19

2. The ideology of Karaite identity can be described as a system of symbols, which were formed and selected under the influence of nationalism movement. Due to this, the main elements of identity ideology were language and ethnic origin, while the previously important element religion was left in the periphery of this system. 3. The spread of identity ideology and its adoption depended much on the abilities of community s elite to control the means of comunication (mainly press) and to suppress the birth of any other ideology among its members. When community s elite began to act outside the community, the spread of their ideology became visible in the dominating society, especially in the academic sphere. This shift had a gread influence on formation of Karaite studies in the region. Structre of Doctoral Dissertation The dissertation comprises the table of contents, introduction, three chapters and conclusions, lists of sources and references, used in the research. The first chapter discusses the political, social and cultural preconditions, which occurred in the 19 th century and formed a context for Karaite identity transformation. The attention is payed to the society formed conditions for the Karaites to exist and to community s response to this new environment followed by the need to integrate to the dominating society. The second chapter deals with 20

the formation of the most important element of the Karaite identity ideology the historical myth paying attention to political and cultural context in which this myth is constructed, legitimized and spread. Besides this, other important cultural symbols of Karaite identity ideology are analyzed. The linguistic reforms and attempts to introduce changes in religious practice in Karaite community are analyzed paying attention to the cultural movements in other non- Christian communities and their possible influence to the mentioned phenomena in Karaite community. It is important to note that historical myth, linguistic politics and religious reforms were worked out into the well functioning system, which can be described as identity ideology. The last chapter of the thesis presents the research of Karaite identity ideology reception spread in the community. It also analyzes the the historiography of Karaite studies in Poland and Lithuania during the whole 20 th century and nowadays, focusing on the impact of Karaite identity ideology to the formation of Karaite studies in these countries and the role of scholarship in spreading the ideology outside the community. The research is based on a wide range of sources personal archive of Seraja Szapszał, Karaite communal documents, periodicals, archives of Polish administration, legislation of Karaite community in Russian Empire, wide range of Karaite periodicals, as well as poetry, pieces of literature, composed by Karaite authors. A special attention is payed to the historiography of Karaite studies in Poland and 21

Lithuania from the beginning of the 20 th century onwards, which served as a source in investigating the impact of the Karaite identity ideology to the scholarship. Conclusions: 1. The research, implemented using ethnosymbolist approach, showed that the formation of Karaite identity can be described as the reception of the blueprint of linguistic and ethnic nationalism that prevailed in the region, when the cultural symbols are adopted, re-created or invented and joined into one ideology. This ideology is entrenched in the community and dominating society. There are two equally important processes in the formation of Karaite identity, which determined its content: a) dejudaization, which meant the rejection or transformation of all cultural symbols, which were characteristic to Jewish tradition: Hebrew language and alphabet, and historical narrative, based on Torah tradition, b) attempt to integrate into dominating society (to the 19 th century Russian Orthodox and 20 th century Polish, and to the lesser extend Lithuanian Catholic) by public demonstration of loyality and patriotism, acception of local dialect and adaptation of its alphabet to the minority language. 22

The non-christian religion, practiced by the Karaites, formed their religious identity until 19 th century. However, life in Diaspora being surrounded by two other non-christian communities Jews and Tatars made it impossible to escape from the influence of those two bigger, ideologically and culturally more capable communities and the changes they experienced. Collective identity of Polish and Lithuanian Karaites made a shift from Jewish religious identity to the secular Tatar self-perception, but this process did not end up in complete inter relation. The identity ideology remained in between these two groups, adopting and re-shaping cultural symbols, visible in both communities into one system, accepted by Karaites as their own identity ideology. 2. The Karaite identity ideology is a system of three main elements: a) the historical narrative, the plot of which was shaped by legend of Karaite origin, and its local variations, b) Turkic language, which evolved from spoken dialect to high literaty language with the status of national language after implementation of linguistic reforms in the first half of the 20 th century. Due to the high impact of region s linguistic and ethnic nationalisms, these first two elements significantly dominated against the third one c) religion. 23

All mentioned elements of Karaite identity ideology were strongly affected by the culture of other non- Christian communities. The historical narrative was created on the basis of the scheme, typical to the Eastern European Jewish migration legends, while its content was filled with the cultural symbols, characteristic to the Tatar community. Such symbiosis of legendary stories illustrates the shift of Karaite identity from Jewish to Turkic (in other words, from common with Jews to common with Tatars). Language language itself and the communication possibilities it had (mainly public, through press) played a major role in formation of Karaite identity. In the third decade of the 20 th century, when the the first stage of reform took place, the Turkic language, which was previuosely used as a spoken dialect keeping Hebrew for litrarty and liturgical purposes, was standardized. All elements of Hebrew language were removed from the spoken Turkic dialect (devisualization) and replaced by Turkish ones. Almost at the same time the Karaite identity ideology began to be propagated in literature and press in Turkic. But the biggest paradox was the use of religion for Karaite identity ideology. On the one hand, the elite was trying to de-actualize it by pushing it out from the monopoly role it had over the Karaites, but on the other hand, Karaite leaders were trying to fit it to the new identity idelology. The religion reform 24

projects were suggested in the third fourth decades of the 20 th century, but their ideas were grounded in the Jewish Haskalah movement, even though the dejudaization process in Karaite community at that time was the strongest ever. 3. The selection of cultural symbols, their consolidation and dissemination was a privilege of community s elite. The appearance of alternative ideology was quickly suppressed because the levers of power belonged to the creators of Turkic identity ideology (like the monopoly of preparation and printing communal press, official positions in communal administration, and the Society of the Lovers of Karaite History and Literature, etc.). This was the reason why Turkic identity ideology became dominating in the community in such a short time only half of the century. This process was also affected by cultural and ideological movements in other non-christian communities: secularization and modernization, formation of national identity. It was characteristic, that the founders of the Karaite identity ideology at the same time were responsible for its expression. It was because of they had a monopoly of means, necessary for dissemination of ideology (a right to publish communal press, finances and institutional support), and relatively bigger cultural potention if compared to ther 25

community members. Community s elite pioneered in academical research of Karaite history and Culture in interwar Poland and later in Lithuania. They formed a field of research and worked to strengthen the image of Karaite identity ideology in the academical circles. As a result, the Turkic ideology (theory on ethnic origins of the Karaites, Karaite historical narrative and other elements discussed above) received a scholary approval, while the historiography became an important mean of spreading this ideology outside the community. The followers of Khazaric approach in Karaite studies usually does not refer to historiography of Jewish studies that examines the Karaite history in different perspective, which results in academic isolation and lack of discussion on the topic. 26

Short biography of the doctoral candidate In 2007 Dovilė Troskovaitė completed Cultural History and Anthropology studies at the Faculty of History of Vilnius University for bachelor s degree. Later she continued her studies in the field, and after defence of her thesis The Shift of Karaite Identity: Formation of Modern Self Perception in 2009 she received MA degree in history. In 2009 2014 D. Troskovaitė completed PhD studies at Klaipėda University and Lithuanian Institute of History. In 2009 2012 she received Lithuanian Research Council s (earlier Lithuanian Science and Studies Foundation) scholarship for academic results and in 2012 2013 a scholarship of the Memorial Foundation for Jewish Culture. While implementing the research, presented in this dissertation, D. Troskovaitė had worked in the archives and libraries of Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and Israel. D. Toskovaitė in an author of several articles in Lithuanian and English. During 2007 2014 9 presentations were delivered on the research results in international academic conferences, as well as in several open lectures. Field of her academic interests covers history of non Christian communities in Lithuania and Poland in the 19 th 20 th centuries, cultural and social relations between Karaite, Tatar, and Jewish communities in Eastern Europe, formation of secular ethnic self identities of non-christians in Eastern Europe in the 19 th 20 th centuries. 27

During her academic career D. Troskovaitė coperated in international academic research projects: in 2008 2011 worked in the project Synagogues in Lithuania. A Catalogue (Vilnius Academy of Fine Arts), from 2013 until now she is holding a post of junior researcher in an international research project Historical demography studies and their application to the Jewish censuses of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Vilnius University, Faculty of History) and is working in the Centre for Studies of the Culture and History of East European Jews. 28

DAKTARO DISERTACIJOS SANTRAUKA LIETUVIŲ KALBA Tapatybių tyrimai, prasidėję sociologijos ir antropologijos moksluose, vis labiau tampa aktualūs istorikams. Tokių tyrimų laukas apima tautas ir bendruomenes, jų kolektyvinio tapatumo transformacijas ir raišką. Naujausi kolektyvinio tapatumo tyrimai 12 įgalina kalbėti apie tapatybės ideologijas ir jų tarpusavio kovą. Tokia prieiga aktuali ir karaimų tapatybės tyrimuose, nagrinėjant skirtingų tapatybių ideologijų įtaką karaimų kolektyvinio tapatumo konstravimui, bei skirtingų tapatybių karaimų bendruomenėje tarpusavio konkurenciją XIX a. II pusėje XX a. pirmoje pusėje. Šiuo tyrimu siekiama nustatyti, kaip kito karaimų savivoka, kokie veiksniai skatino šiuos pokyčius, kokie šie pokyčiai buvo, kaip jie reiškėsi ir/ar buvo reiškiami bei palaikomi bendruomenėje nuo XIX a. antros pusės iki XX a. vid. Keliamas klausimas, kodėl tokia nedidelė bendruomenė, pristatydama save bendrapiliečiams, svarbiausiu savitumu, tapatumo indikatoriumi pasirinko kilmę? Su kokiomis kitomis kultūrinėmis reikšmėmis tapatindamiesi jie išskiria save iš kitų? Taip pat siekiama nustatyti dominuojančios krikščioniškos visuomenės vaidmenį ar ji suteikė terpę karaimų bendruomenės tapatumui egzistuoti ir jam keistis bei legitimavo 12 Safronovas V., Praeitis kaip konflikto šaltinis. Tapatybės ideologijų konkurencija XX a. Klaipėdoje, Vilnius, 2011, p. 11 51. 29

sukurtą bendruomenės tapatybės ideologiją jų dominuojamoje kultūrinėje erdvėje? Naujumas ir aktualumas. Karaimų kilmės klausimas bei jo transformacijos karaimų bendruomenės savivokoje yra sulaukusios tyrinėtojų dėmesio 13 buvo atkreiptas dėmesys į dejudeizacijos (angl. dejudaization) fenomeną bendruomenėje, glausčiau ar plačiau aprašytos kai kurios karaimų bendruomenės savivokai XX a. pirmoje pusėje būdingos kultūrinės reikšmės, daugiausia kilmės mitas bei tam tikros istorinio mito detalės, tačiau be platesnio problemos konteksto šio reiškinio atsiradimo priežasčių, sąveikos su kitais kolektyvinės tapatybės elementais kalba, religija ir jų kaita, šių elementų įtvirtinimo mechanizmo iki šiol pasigendama, todėl kolektyvinės karaimų tapatybės aptarimas neįgauna visuminio vaizdo ir nepaaiškina karaimų bendruomenėje vykusių mentaliteto pokyčių. Neapčiuopta liko ir kitų dviejų nekrikščioniškų bendruomenių totorių ir žydų viduje vykusių socialinių, kultūrinių procesų įtaka kolektyvinei karaimų bendruomenei, nors Dan Shapiros pateiktos įžvalgos apie totoriškus elementus LDK krikščioniškos visuomenės pasaulėžiūroje galėjo tapti 13 Freund R., Karaites and dejudaization. A historical Review of an Endogenous and Exogenous Paradigm, Stockholm, 1991. 30

postūmiu plačiau į tyrimą įtraukti karaimų bendruomenę. 14 Tuo tarpu žydų bendruomenėje XVIII XIX a. vykusio modernizacijos proceso poveikis karaimų bendruomenėje istoriografijoje dar nebuvo nagrinėtas. Šių tyrimo aspektų praplėtimas leistų ne tik plačiau pažvelgti į Lietuvos ir Lenkijos karaimų kolektyvinę tapatybę, identifikuoti jos bruožus, bet ir padėtų svarstyti bendrai apie nekrikščioniškų, diasporoje gyvenančių ir motininės valstybės neturinčių grupių modernios savivokos formavimo(si) mechanizmą, išskirti galimas tendencijas jų tapatumo pokyčiuose. Antras svarbus aspektas, grindžiantis tyrimo aktualumą daliai Rytų Europos karaimų istorijai ir kultūrai skirtų tyrimų būdingos istoriografinės klišės susiformavusios XX a. pradžioje. Proceso, kurio metu karaimų tapatybė buvo sukonstruota ir įtvirtinta kaip tokia, tyrimas leistų kritiškiau įvertinti esamą istoriografiją, matyti joje susiformavusias tendencijas bei jų problemiškumą, iš naujo kelti manomai atsakytus klausimus bei praplėsti galimų karaimikos tyrimų krypčių lauką. Karaimų kolektyvinės tapatybės formavimąsi vertinant platesniame kontekste, atsižvelgiant į regione bei kitose nekrikščioniškose bendruomenėse vykusius politinius ir 14 Shapira D., Turkism, Polish Sarmatism and Jewish szlachta : Some Reflections on a Cultural Context of the Polish-Lithuanian Karaites, Karadeniz Araştırmaları (Black Sea Studies), Sayı: 20, Kış 2009, p. 29 43 31

kultūrinius pokyčius analizuojamu laikotarpiu, jų galimą įtaką kolektyvinės karaimų tapatybės konstravimui, įvertinus istoriškai bendruomenėje egzistavusių kultūrinių simbolių tęstinumo ir/ar jų transformacijos (ne)egzistavimą neabejotinai leistų pažvelgti į karaimų tapatybės susiformavimą platesniame kontekste bei nustatyti proceso priežastis bei jį paveikusias įtakas.todėl šiame tyrime mėginama iš naujo pažvelgti į jau egzistuojančius karaimų istorijos tyrimus, įvertinti juose pasitaikančius teiginius kolektyvinės karaimų tapatybės konstravimo kontekste. Tyrimo tikslai: 1. Nustatyti, kokios priežastys lėmė kolektyvinės karaimų tapatybės transformacijos poreikį, kokias transformacijos kryptis jos nurodė bei kokia buvo karaimų bendruomenės reakcija į šiuos reiškinius. 2. Rekonstruoti kolektyvinės karaimų tapatybės ideologijos reikšmių sistemą, jų turinį bei tarpusavio sąveiką XIX a. antroje pusėje XX a. pirmoje pusėje. 3. Rekonstruoti kolektyvinės karaimų tapatybės ideologijos raišką ir sklaidą, jos įsitvirtinimo bendruomenės kolektyvinėje atmintyje bei dominuojančios visuomenės akademiniame diskurse mastą. 32

Keliami uždaviniai: 1. Nustatyti veiksnius, paskatinusius karaimų tapatybės pokyčius XIX a. antroje pusėje XX a. pirmoje pusėje; 2. Išanalizuoti istorijos kaip praeities pažinimo būdo atsiradimą karaimų bendruomenėje bei jos reikšmę kolektyvinio tapatumo formavimui; 3. Įvertinti integracijos į dominuojančią visuomenę įtaką karaimų bendruomenės tapatybės formavimui XX a. pirmoje pusėje; 4. Aptarti ryškiausios Rytų Europos karaimų bendruomenės lyderio Serajos Šapšalo biografijos ir veiklos bruožus bei jų reikšmę karaimų tapatybės ideologijos kūrimui XX a. pirmoje pusėje; 5. Rekonstruoti karaimų istorinio mito siužetą, jo raidos aplinkybes bei galimas kitų bendruomenių įtakas šiam procesui; 6. Nustatyti istorinio karaimų mito lokalią recepciją ir jai būdingus simbolius bei istorinės Tėvynės vaizdinio transformacijas karaimų kolektyvinės tapatybės ideologijoje; Nustatyti kitų tapatybės ideologijai būdingų elementų egzistavimą bendruomenėje bei jų sąveiką su istoriniu mitu. 7. Ištirti bendruomenės spaudos reikšmę kolektyvinės karaimų tapatybės ideologijos sklaidai ir jos įsigalėjimui XX a. I pusėje; 33

8. Nustatyti kolektyvinės karaimų tapatybės ideologijos raišką ir sklaidos mastą bei pobūdį bendruomenės narių tarpe; 9. Rekonstruoti karaimikos studijų formavimosi Lenkijoje ir Lietuvoje raidą XX a. bei galimą jos ryšį su karaimų tapatybės ideologija; Sąlyginės tyrimo chronologinės ribos apima XIX a. antroje pusėje XX a. pirmoje pusėje karaimų bendruomenėje vykusius procesus. Šios ribos yra sąlyginės kolektyvinės bendruomenės tapatybės formavimasis dėl savo kompleksiškumo neturėjo aiškiai apibrėžtos pradžios, o suvokiant tapatybę kaip kintančią ir pabaigos. Tokių chronologinių rėmų pasirinkimą nulėmė keli veiksniai, kurių pirmasis ir svarbiausias disponuojami šaltiniai. Pirmasis žinomas dokumentas, kuriame buvo užfiksuotas karaimų atskirties formavimas siekia XVIII a. paskutiniuosius metus, nuo kurio prasidėjo tolesni pokyčiai bendruomenės savivokoje, besitęsę iki XIX a. pabaigos. Šis laikotarpis kolektyvinės karaimų tapatybės formavime apėmė tokius procesus kaip klasikinės priešpriešos tarp mes ir jie konstravimą, bei siekį įtvirtinti ją bei pirmuosius bandymus atrasti simbolius bei reikšmes, kurios galėtų įteisinti šią priešpriešą. Šis procesas ne visada buvo sklandus tiek dėl bendruomenės vidinės komunikacijos stokos 15, 15 B. Andersono aptarta komunikacijos reikšmė bendruomenių konsolidacijai, buvo būdinga ir karaimų bendruomenei geografiškai nutolę jos nariai tik naudodami komunikacijos priemones spaudą, 34

tiek dėl kitų objektyvių veiksnių nepakankamos kultūrinės terpės bei reikšmių, turėjusių įtvirtinti atskirtumą, stokos. Vis dėlto, pasikeitusios geopolitinės aplinkybės po Pirmojo pasaulinio karo ne tik padėjo šį atskirumą įtvirtinti, bet ir paskatino tolimesnius pokyčius bendruomenės savivokoje, kurie nulėmė pusę amžiaus nuo XX a. pradžios iki jo vidurio besitęsusį sekuliarios tautinės kolektyvinės karaimų tapatybės formavimą. Galine sąlyginių chronologinių rėmų riba pasirinkti 1940 ieji, kai vyriausiasis karaimų dvasininkas S. Šapšalas buvo priverstas atsisakyti bendruomenėje užimamų pareigų dėl sovietmečiu atsiradusio institucijų draudimo, kas formaliai reiškė ir institucionalizuotos karaimų bendruomenės egzistavimo pabaigą. Tačiau siekiant iki galo rekonstruoti kolektyvinės bendruomenės tapatybės kūrimą bei jos palaikymą, tyrime pasitelkiami ir vėlesni S. Šapšalo darbai, reikšmingai prisidėję prie šio proceso tęstinumo. Karaimų kolektyvinės tapatybės tyrimas apima Lenkijos karaimų bendruomenę. 16 Nors tyrimo chronologija prasideda XIX a. korespondenciją, galėjo suvokti, įsivirtinti ir išlaikyti tarpusavio bendrumo, priklausymo vienai grupei jausmą. Kartu tai buvo priemonė skleisti ir įtvirtinti bei palaikyti savo tapatumą. 16 XVIII a. pab. po įvykusių pirmųjų dviejų Abiejų Tautų Respublikos padalijimų, Haličo, Lvovo bendruomenės tapo pavaldžios Austrijai, o ATR priklausomybėje liko Trakų, Lucko, Naujamiesčio bendruomenės bei keletas mažesnių sub-bendruomenių, pavaldžių minėtosioms. Krymo chanate gyvenę karaimai nuo 1783 m. priklausė Rusijos imperijai. Po trečiojo ATR padalijimo, jos priklausomybei perėjo minėtos trys ATR buvusios bendruomenės (Trakų, Lucko, 35

viduryje, tuo metu bendruomenėje vykęs atsikyrimo nuo žydiškosios tradicijos procesas bei poreikis įtvirtinti savo atskirumą dar savaime nereiškė naujos tapatybės gimimo, o veikiau rodė siekį surasti optimalų būdą prisitaikyti prie pakitusių socialinių bei kultūrinių sąlygų. Lūžio riba, kurią galima pasitelkti kaip atskaitos tašką, žymintį karaimų savivokos formavimosi pradžią derėtų laikyti 1911 m., kai karaimų laikraštyje Караимская Жизнь (liet. Karaimų gyvenimas) pasirodė straipsnis, skirtas karaimų nacionalinei savivokai. 17 Prasidėjusio proceso eigą sustabdė Pirmasis pasaulinis karas, kuriam pasibaigus Rytų Europos karaimai atsidūrė Lietuvoje (Panevėžyje ir jo apylinkėse), Lenkijoje (Vilnius, Trakai, Luckas, Haličas) ir Ukrainoje (vėliau Ukrainos TSR). Paradoksalu, tačiau tik Lenkijos karaimai turėjo sąlygas aktualizuotis kaip atskira grupė Lietuvoje veikusi Konstitucija užtikrino visiems gyventojams lygias teises, neskiriant pagal luomą ar religiją. Išsiskyrė tikrai žydų bendruomenė jai suteikta autonomija. Tuo tarpu visoms kitoms Naujamiesčio). Iki 1869 m. visi imperijos karaimai buvo pavaldūs vienai institucijai Taurijos karaimų dvasinių reikalų valdybai, įkurtai 1837 m., todėl formaliai Trakų, Naujamiesčio, Lucko, Taurijos bendruomenės su mažesniais joms priklausančiais dariniais sudarė vieną bendruomenę. XIX a. 7-ajame dešimtmetyje analogiška institucija buvo įkurta Trakuose, kuriai perėjo Trakų, Naujamiesčio ir Lucko bendruomenių pavaldumas. Situacija išliko nepakitusi iki I pasaulinio karo pabaigos. 17 Кокизов Д., Националъное самосознание, in: Караимская жизнь, кн. 3 4, 1911, c. 21 34. 36

religinėms grupėms specialūs įstatymai nebuvo taikomi. Ukrainai tapus tarybų socialistine respublika (1922 1991 m.) sąlygos bendruomeninei, kultūrinei veiklai, unikaliam tapatumui formuotis nebuvo sudarytos. Tuo tarpu Lenkijoje kiekvienai religinei grupei turėjo būti sukurtas atskiras jų bendruomeninį gyvenimą reglamentuojantis įstatymas. 18 Tokiu būdu valstybė sudarė sąlygas ir suteikė postūmį kolektyvinio tapatumo svarstymams karaimų bendruomenėje. Tai nereiškia, jog kitur karaimai nesuvokė savo atskirumo nuo kitų bendruomenių tai jau buvo įvykę anksčiau, tačiau jis nesuformavo atskiros, kolektyvinio tapatumo ideologijos. Metodologija. Tyrimas atliekamas pasitektus klasikinius istorijos mokslo metodus šaltinių analizę bei reiškinių lyginimą. Tyrimo metu taip pat sugretinami atskiri karaimų ir žydų bendruomenėse vykę kultūriniai procesai, siekiant atskleisti jų įtaką kolektyvinės karaimų tapatybės konstravimui. Rekonstruojant karaimų savivokos formavimąsi tyrimo atspirties tašku pasirinktos nacionalizmo studijos, atsižvelgiant į laikotarpį, Rytų Europos, kurioje buvo susitelkusi karaimų bendruomenė, istorinį kontekstą, bei palyginti greitą ir radikalų karaimų tapatybės pokytį, keliamos prielaidos, jog 1) karaimų 18 Įstatymai aibrėžė konkrečių bendruomenių savivaldos principus ir ribas, tačiau iš esmės buvo sudaryti pagal vieną formulę. 37

tapatybės pobūdį iš dalies nulėmė regione įsivyravęs nacionalizmas, naujų etniniu ir kalbiniu pagrindu susikūrusių tautų pavyzdys, 2) modernios, kolektyvinės karaimų tapatybės susikūrimui pradžią davė karaimų socialinės padėties pokyčiai bei poreikis prisitaikyti dominuojančioje visuomenėje, 3) karaimų tapatybės ideologijai būdingi tie patys elementai kaip ir regiono tautų savivokai, nors bendruomenė ir nesiekė sukurti savo valstybės 4) palyginti greitą ir radikalų tapatybės pokytį nulėmė tai, jog karaimų tapatybės ideologiją kūrė ir ją skleidė bendruomenės elitas. Siekiama nustatyti karaimų savivokos transformaciją XX a. pirmoje pusėje bei surasti tinkamiausią naujos savivokos tyrimo prieigą. Paprastai sociologų ir istorikų tyrimuose nacionalizmas siejamas su tauta ir valstybingumu. 19 Tačiau Rodžeris Brubakeris (Rogger Brubaker), pateikęs išsamią nacionalizmo studijų kritiką, kaip vieną svarbiausių klaidingų prielaidų, vyraujančių šioje studijų kryptyje nurodė tyrimų orientavimą į valstybes sukūrusias tautas, nuošalyje paliekant kitas grupes, kurių nacionalinė politika savo esme labai artima tautų nacionalizmui, nes manomos tautos susiformavimas reikalauja kur kas daugiau, arba ne vien tik formalios nepriklausomybės. Autorius taip pat teigia, jog nacionalizmo politika egzistuoja tiek prieš, tiek ir po valstybės sukūrimo, todėl grupės, 19 Hobsbawn E., Nations and Nationalism since 1780: programme, myth, reality, Cambridge, 1990, p. 8 10; taip pat Gellner E., Nations and Nationalism, Oxford, 1983, p. 3 5. 38