Daily Answer Writing Programme Subject : General Studies IV Module Name : Ethics Theory Part 1 Test No : 1 Q.1. Define and differentiate between Ethical Egoism and Ethical Altruism. (12.5 marks) Ans. Ethical Altruism is a normative ethical position which suggests that moral value of an individual s action depends solely on the impact that action has on other individuals, regardless of the consequence on individual themselves. This means that in this course of action, everyone benefits but the moral agent themselves. Friedrich Neitzsche held that the idea to treat others as more important than oneself is demeaning and degrading to the self. An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the agent. - James Fieser. Ethical altruism is living for the sake of others - Auguste Comte. Thomas Hobbes - All people act only in ways that improve their own self-interest. All human action are motivated by - Selfish-desires Therefore using others as mean for our own happiness Ethical egoism, on the other hand, is the normative ethical that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest. Ethical egoism does not, however, require moral agents to harm the interests and well-being of others when making moral deliberation; Aditya atnaparkhi Sir (IS) (AI-257) 2017 - e.g. what is in an agent s self-interest may be incidentally detrimental beneficial, or neutral in its effect on others. Ethical egoism can be broadly divided into three categories individual, personal and universal. - An individual ethical egoist would hold that all people should do whatever benefits my (the individual) self-interest; (1)
- A personal ethical egoist would hold that he or she should act in his or her self-interest, but would make no claims about what anyone else ought to do; - A universal ethical egoist would argue that everyone should act in ways that are in their self-interest. Each of us is intimately familiar with our own individual wants and needs. Moreover, each of us is uniquely placed to pursue those wants ans needs effectively. At the same time, we know the desires and needs of others only imperfectly, and we are not well situated to pursue them. Therefore, it is reasonable is believe that if we set out to be our brother s keeper, we would often bungle the job and end up doing more mischief than good. -James achels. Ethical Egoism philosophy of prudence. The ought can t be derived from is. Hence, what is can t justify what sould be. Egoism maintains that each person ought to act to maximise his or her own long-term good or wellbeing. An egoist, in other words, is someone who holds that their one and only obligation is to themselves and their only duty is to serve their own self-interest... If an action produces benefits for them, they should do it; if it doesn t, then it is morally acceptable for them not to do it. - Michael Palmer. Burn the Heavens e.g. Saint abia Quench the fire of hell Ethical Egoism does not deny the possibility of altruism : Ethical Egoists would admit that it is perfectly possible to care about other people. However, according to the Ethical Egoist you ought not to care about the needs or welfare of others, you should only care about and act on your own needs and interests. This means that Ethical Egoism is a Normative Ethical theory stating how people should act, and stating that you should act selfishly. Ethical egoism has been alleged as the basis for immorality. While proponents of ethical altruism highlight that man s actions are moral when they are good for soceity. The ethical egoist, most notably Ayn and, highlight that altruism, ultimately, denies an individual s value and is therefore destructive both to society and its individual components. She goes on to add that purpose of morality is to teach you, not to suffer and die, but to enjoy yourself and live. However, if everyone acts in self interest without thinking of the consequences of his/her action on others, the world will degrade into anarchy. (2)
Q.2 The legality in the contemporary society has both anomalous and complementary relationship with its ethicality. Discuss with examples. (12.5 marks) What is ethics? Ethics is the system of moral principles which is conccerned with what is good and what is bad What is Law? Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behaviour. Discuss the relationship between law and ethics. If it isn t illegal, it must be ethical,the old saying,is deeply flawed in the context of modern society. Ethics and law are as different as the unenforceable from the enforceable, and as complementary to each other in the ultimate aim of creating a citizenry, which does the right thing when confronted with dilemmas. How law and ethics complement each other Law are codified norms of the society, backed by the legitimacy of the state. It reflects areas of moral agreement so broad that the society comes together and says, This ethical behaviour shall be mandated. To a broad extent, when ethics collapses, the law rushes in to fill the void. An example helps here. Earlier you didn t throw litter on the road simply because people don t do those things - because it was the wrong thing to do. Now you don t toss litter because there are fines for doing so. What was once a second domain issue of ethics has shifted to a first domain issue of law. In such examples, legal framework and ethics play a complementary role. Laws represent the minimum standards of human behaviour. Both law and Ethics are the systems which maintain a set of moral values and prevent people from violating them. They both provide people with guidelines of what one may do and what one may not How law and ethics contradict each other But there s another side to it too, when legal framework can possibly have an anomalous relationship with the ethical framework. Ethics comes from people s awareness of what is right and what is wrong while laws are written and approved by the governments No punishment for the violation of ethics Ethics is not well defined but each laws are (3)
(4) A case in point is the Ethics of civil disobedience. The standard of civil disobedience urges that unjust laws be disobeyed. Mahatma Gandhi effectively used it in the 1920s against an unjust but lawful government. Later on, civil rights movement in the United States in 1960s and antiapartheid movement in South Africa also were directed against unjust laws present in those times. Civil disobedience demands moral reasons to disobey the law. Such an anomaly is striking in the modern society because of the growing acceptance of importance of delivering human rights to everyone, which many a times come in conflict with the prevailing conservative laws. Gay rights movement is a relevant example. Q.3. The person s ethical behaviour in a society is affected by many factors. Explain with example the influence of many such factors. (12.5 marks) (Define what ehical behaviour is) Acting in ways consistent with what society and individuals typically think are good values. Ethical behavior tends to be good for business and involves demonstrating respect for key moral principles that include honesty, fairness, equality, dignity, diversity and individual rights. Ethical behaviour is characterized by the value system of the person like honesty, integrity,fairness, objectivity in societal, interpersonal, professional relationships. Ethical behaviour respects the dignity, diversity and rights of individuals and groups of people. It is influenced by the following factors : Individual factors The individual factors that determine the ethical standards of a person are moral development, personal values, family influences, Peer Influences and Life experiences. Personal values and morals An individual s values and morals will also influence his or her ethical standards and behaviour. A key variable which affects the ethical behavior is locus of control. An individual with an internal locus of control believes that he/she can control the events in his/her life. An individual with an external locus of control believes that fate or luck or other people affect his life. Family influences Individuals start to form ethical standards as children in response to their perception of their parent s behaviour and are likely to adopt high ethical standards if they see that their family members adhere to high ethical standard. They develop lower ethical standards if their family members are involved in unethical behaviours.
Peer influences The behaviors and attitudes of peers influence an individual s decisions in their life. They play an important role in ethical decision making. Life experiences Individual s life experiences analyze key ethical concepts such as right, wrong, and permissible. It lets people explore possible sources of moral obligation such as God, human reason, or the desire to be happy. It seeks to establish principles of right behavior that may serve as action guides for individuals and groups. Culture and the country The culture and the country, in which an individual is based, influence one s ethical decisions or behaviour. All cultures differ in values and morals. In western culture, one may look into the person s eyes when one is conversing or talking to them. But in certain Asian cultures such as Japan, it is very rude to converse with a person that is higher status (age, work etc.) while looking into their eyes. Thus, what is ethical in a country may not be ethical in other countries. Legality Most ancient societies shares common ethical codes, such as against murder, causing injury to fellow human, and attacks on honour and reputation of an individual. In modern world societies, Law and justice to the public are closely related to ethics and they enforce certain rights and duties in an attempt to repress and punish deviations from these standards. Temporal aspects Moral development is the process through which children develop proper attitudes and behaviours toward other in society, based on social and culture norms, rules and laws. Q.4. What are the determinants of Ethics? Should circumstances be the sole criterion for judging the morality of human action or the nature of the action and its purpose must also be considered? Justify your stand with examples. (12.5 marks) (Identify the determinants of human action (nature/object, circumstances, and purpose) that are analyzed for judging the morality of human action.) Determinants are the factors in human behaviour that determine whether it is good or bad. There are three such determinants of ethics, namely the object, purpose/end, and the circumstances. Some philosophers believe that circumstances are the sole criterion for judging the morality of human action. Joseph Fletcher maintained that action becomes specific through circumstances. Without specificity ethical elements in action can t be examined. (5)
(6) Circumstances make an abstract action to be specific based on time, place, agent, and manner. For example, to strike in self defence is one thing and to strike without any provocation is another matter. Thus, circumstances decide the morality of human action. (Explain that though circumstances are a criterion but they are not the sole criterion since the object, as well as, purpose of human action should also be considered in deciding the morality of human action.) However, there are two other elements to every action that decides the morality of human action nature/ object and purpose/end of human action not just the circumstances. Object means what the free will chooses to do in thought, word, or deed or chooses not to do. The end is meant the purpose for which the act is willed, which may be the act itself (as one of loving God) or some other purpose for which a person acts (as reading to learn). An action whose object is bad by its very nature will remain bad and nothing can improve it neither circumstances nor purpose. For example, a lie remains a lie despite the purpose or circumstances. Circumstances can only make it less bad but never good. Here another issue with circumstances as the sole criterion becomes apparent that it makes morality subjective and relative (telling lie can be bad or less bad depending on circumstances). Similarly, an action whose purpose/intention is bad is unethical and nothing can improve itneither object nor circumstances. For example, giving donation to a poor helpless person is good because of its object and the circumstances but can be termed as unethical if you give donation with an intention to lure a homeless person into doing something evil. Thus, circumstances are not the sole criterion rather object, circumstances, and purpose together decide the morality of human action. Q.5. Good is what God commands, and only what God commands is good. On this view, God s will or God s command is the whole of Ethics. A law or Principle is right if and only if it is willed by God. Elaborate on this statement and also discuss the relationship between relation and ethics. (12.5 marks) The Euthyphro dilemma is found in Plato s dialogue Euthyphro, in which Socrates asks Euthyphro, in which Socrates asks Euthyphro, Is the pious loved by the Gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the Gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the Gods? In a modified form : Is what is morally good commanded by God because it is morally good, or is it morally good because it is commanded by God? God commands it because it is right : Supporters The first horn of the dilemma (i.e. that which is right is commanded by God because it is right) goes by a variety of names, including intellectualism, rationalism, realism, naturalism, and objectivism.
It is the view that there are independent moral standards : some actions are right or wrong in themselves, independent of God s commands. Thomas Aquinas draws a distinction between what is good or evil in itself and what is good or evil because of God s commands, with unchangeable moral standards forming the bulk of natural law. Among later Scholastics, Gabriel Vasquez is particularly clear-cut about obligations existing prior to anyone s will, even God s Modern natural law theory saw Grotius and Leibniz also putting morality prior to God s will, comapring moral truths to unchangeable mathematical truths. Criticisms Sovereignty : If there are moral standards independent of God s will, then there is something over which God is not sovereign. God is bound by the laws of morality instead of being their establisher. These moral standards would limit God s power : not even God could oppose them by commanding what is evil and thereby making it good. Freedom of will : these moral standards would limit God s freedom of will : God could not command anything opposed to them, and perhaps would have no choice but to command in accordance with them. elationship between Ethics and eligion eligion is nothing but morality touched with emotion. - Mathew Arnold. All human societies need moral codes in order to sruvive. Without moral rules there is disharmony and chaos. The question is where do these codes come from? Upon what foundation are the ideas of what is right and what is wrong build? According to many scholars, including Pringle Pattison and Bradley, ethics and religion are very intimately related. According to Bradley, it is a moral duty not to be moral and this is the duty to be religious. But to be moral, is not a duty just as eating, drinking, sleeping etc, are not. eligion is a natural human tendency and it may take any form of manifestation. From the above opinion, it is inferred that religion is based upon emotion but ethical sense is based upon reason. People who believe in the identity of religion and ethics lead to forget their differences. eligion is the ideal basis of the ethics. Moral is the expression, in society, of our spiritual consciosness. A person who sees God in every object turns to social service, unconsciously. A truly religious person sees the entire world permeated by Good. eligion and ethics both make important contributions to the development of the human personality. Their sources are dirrerent. In human development, both ethics and religion develop side by side and influence each other. It is possible that in some circumstances religion may be unethical, in which case it would be inappropriate to call it a true religion. View of Atheists Other bases for ethics (7)
Q.6 Intuition fills the void created by laws and rules. In the light of the given statement analyze the role of intuition in ethical decision making in administration. (12.5 marks) (Define what intuition is) Intuition is a special sense faculty that enables human being to perceive directly (without rational thought) what is right or what is wrong. Thus, it is the ability to acquire knowledge without proof, evidence, or conscious reasoning. However, few thinkers believe that intuition has a rational and cognitive element. Descartes refers to intuition as a pre-existing knowledge gained through rational reasoning or discovering truth through contemplation. This definition is commonly referred to as rational intuition. Ethical intuitionism is the thesis that our intuitive awareness of value, or intuitive knowledge of evaluative facts, forms the foundation of our ethical knowledge. (Discuss the merits and Demerits) Merits : Intuitive decision making fills the void created by law and rules, as it provides a guiding force of self, thus encouraging personal freedom making bureaucratic decision making less rigid and more flexible. It accepts the diverse moral values, and provides scope for situational decision making. It allows administrator to render an act illegal on the basis of judgments. Demerits : Since intuition is a special sense faculty that lacks fact-based rationality, contemplating administrative scenario based on intuition can be arbitrary while making decision. It can contradict the general law of morality based on rule of law and constitution. Intuition may create in an individual a kind of understanding that a satisfaction is superior which is actually inferior. An intuitive decision making, without adequate facts and analysis, can bring chaos in administration. Conclusion : Therefore, due to its contradictory effect intuition plays a critical role in ethical decision making. Too less and too many of intuition is bad. In fact, general law should prevail and intuitionism can be incorporated within the law itself. This means that provisions can be made in law itself by which administrators can be allowed to take flexible decision within the framework of broader law for public good. Q. 7 Discuss the various Ethical issues involved in Biotechnology. (12.5 marks) (Define Biotech.) Biotechnology is the broad area of biology involving living systems and organisms to develop or make products, or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use" (8)
Biotechnology has helped improve food quality, quantity and processing. It also has applications in manufacturing, where simple cells and proteins can be manipulated to produce chemicals. Also biotechnology is most important for its implications in health and medicine. Advances in biotechnology, and their applications are most frequently associated with controversies. Some of the popular phrases used in the media while referring to experiments on recombinant DNA technology are : i. Manipulation of life ii. Playing with God iii. Man-made evolution The issues involved are : The major apprehension of genetic engineering is that through recombinant DNA experiments unique microorganisms or viruses (either inadvertently or sometimes deliberately for the purpose of war) may be developed that would cause epidemics and environmental catastrophes. Tests conducted on animals (Animal rights) Effect on human health from consumption of GM food (ight to know) The use of recombinant foods are related to religious beliefs, besides food habits. Transfer of pig genes into sheep may offend the sentiments of Jews and Muslims. Introduction of animal genes into food plants may invite opposition by strict vegetarians. Transfer of human genes to food animals may be unacceptable to some people. Hampering the environment and the bio-diversity Human cloning, Designer Babies Q.8. What do you understand by Ethical elativism? Do you believe that Ethics is relative? Justify your stand. (12.5 marks) Ethical relativism is the theory that holds that morality is relative to the norms of one's culture. That is, whether an action is right or wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in which it is practiced. The same action may be morally right in one society but be morally wrong in another. For the ethical relativist, there are no universal moral standards -- standards that can be universally applied to all peoples at all times. For example, in some societies, killing one's parents after they reached a certain age is common practice, which the modern societies consider as barbarism. The only moral standards against which a society's practices can be judged are its own. If ethical relativism is correct, there can be no common framework for resolving moral disputes or for reaching agreement on ethical matters among members of different societies. (9)
Cultures differ widely in their moral practices. As anthropologist uth Benedict illustrates in Patterns of Culture, diversity is evident even on those matters of morality where we would expect to agree Many point to a range of practices considered morally acceptable in some societies but condemned in others, including infanticide, genocide, polygamy, racism, sexism, and torture. Such differences may lead us to question whether there are any universal moral principles or whether morality is merely a matter of "cultural taste." Differences in moral practices across cultures raise an important issue in ethics -- the concept of "ethical relativism." Arguments against Most ethicists reject the theory of ethical relativism Many claim that while the moral practices of societies may differ, the fundamental moral principles underlying these practices do not. Same example of killing parents - om the belief that people were better off in the afterlife if they entered it while still physically active and vigorous (underlying moral principle -- the duty to care for parents) It may be the case that some moral beliefs are culturally relative whereas others are not. Certain practices, such as customs regarding dress and decency, may depend on local custom whereas other practices, such as slavery, torture, or political repression, may be governed by universal moral standards and judged wrong despite the many other differences that exist among cultures. Simply because some practices are relative does not mean that all practices are relative. Some assert that if the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on a society's norms, then it follows that one must obey the norms of one's society and to diverge from those norms is to act immorally. Example - This means that if I am a member of a society that believes that racial or sexist practices are morally permissible, then I must accept those practices as morally right. But such a view promotes social conformity and leaves no room for moral reform or improvement in a society. Many assert that universal moral standards can exist even if some moral practices and beliefs vary among cultures. Example - The practice of slavery in pre-civil war U.S. society or the practice of apartheid in South Africa is wrong despite the beliefs of those societies. The treatment of the Jews in Nazi society is morally reprehensible regardless of the moral beliefs of Nazi society. Hence, even if the theory of ethical relativism is rejected, it must be acknowledged that the concept raises important issues. Ethical relativism reminds us that different societies have different moral beliefs and that our beliefs are deeply influenced by culture. It also encourages us to explore the reasons underlying beliefs that differ from our own, while challenging us to examine our reasons for the beliefs and values we hold. (10)
Q.9 What do you understand by Environmental Ethics? Discuss the approaches to Environmental Ethics. (12.5 marks) (Define what environmental Ethics is) Environmental ethics is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings to, and also the value and moral status of, theenvironment and its non-human contents. (Elaborate man-environment relationship) Man's endeavor to evolve a mutually re-enforcing relationship with nature is age old, however if this creative relationship would not have been established, life on the planet Earth would have disappeared long ago. It is our fundamental duty to make this planet earth a decent habitable place. This leads to the rise of concept of environmental ethics. Environmental ethics relates to our obligations and responsibilities towards nature. Environmental ethics is the guiding force that should make every human care of their surroundings. This states that for an equitable share in the ecology we must have equal responsibilities. But one must remember that each one owes some responsibility towards the environment which provides not only food and other materials but also satisfies aesthetic needs of humans comforts. However, over exploitation of resources by growing human population has upset the natural balance. The use of technology and economic growth have led to ecological problems. Approaches to environmental ethics There are three primary theories of moral responsibility regarding the environment. Anthropocentrism : Anthropocentrism is the view that all environmental responsibility is derived from human interests alone. The assumption here is that only human beings are morally significant and have direct moral standing. Since the environment is crucial to human well-being and human survival, we have an indirect duty toward the environment, that is, a duty derived from human interests. We must ensure that the Earth remains environmentally hospitable for supporting human life and even that it remains a pleasant place for humans to live. Biocentrism : According to the broadest version of the biocentric theory, all forms of life have an inherent right to exist. Ecocentrism : The third approach to environmental responsibility, called ecocentrism, maintains that the environment deserves direct moral consideration and not consideration that is merely derived from human or animal interests. In ecocentrism it is suggested that the environment itself, not just the living organisms that inhabit it, has moral worth. (11)
(12) Q. 10. A person cannot do right in public life whilst attempting to do wrong in personal life. Examine the relationship between personal and professional ethics. Do civil servants have to be ethical in personal life in order to be professionally ethical? Illustrate. (12.5 marks) Personal ethics refers to the ethics that a person identifies with in respect to people and situations that they deal with in everyday life. Professional ethics refers to the ethics that a person must adhere to in respect of their interactions and business dealings in their professional life. (Explain the meaning of the statement) - The intrinsic relationship between personal and professional life for a public servant is highlighted here. This relationship stems from requirement of strong character based on integrity for a person to perform his/her duty justifiably. If person is lacking in his personal conduct it will question his public acts as well. Further, lack of integrity in personal life sets the demand for close relationship between personal and professional ethics as well e.g. a honest and upright administrator will always inspire people to maintain harmony between both the spheres of life. (Explain how they can t be separated from one another) - Individual's personal and professional life are two sides of the same coin. Even Mahatma Gandhi observed that we cannot do right in one aspect of life whilst indulging in wrong acts in other. According to him life is an indivisible whole. Any distinction between public and private conduct is considered artificial. Eg. A doctor may not personally believe that the course of medical treatment chosen by a patient is the right one. However, under the Code of Ethics, she must respect the rights, autonomy and freedom of choice of the patient. The close relationship between two spheres of life stems from following reasons: Certain values like honesty, respect, empathy, trust, equality and efficiency etc which are considered to equally guide our actions in both professional and private sphere e.g. if want interpersonal trust of friendship to be reflected in our relationship with government. Civil administrators are increasingly became public figures in age of media Our world is moving toward integration of work and life due to availability of technical knowhow. Since the boundaries between professional and personal life is shrinking in contemporary lives, it is imperative for civil administrator to cherish same values which forms the ethical basis of civil administration job. e.g. If a person value dedication and commitment in personal relationship, he/she is more likely to value them in professional life also. If a person is honest and punctual in his personal life, he/she will reflect diligence and punctuality in his work as well.