Chapter I INTRODUCTION I.1. Significance and Relevance of Research on the Topic Buddhism was founded in the sixth century B.C. by the Buddha Śākyamuni. According to the Buddhist history, after leaving his palace Siddhārtha travelled to the Ganges river area where he experienced the religious life for six years and finally attained enlightenment under the bodhi tree at Bodh-gaya, and became the Buddha. Buddhism in India has produced outstanding thinkers, who have contributed not only to Indian thought, but also to human thought. The central concept of Buddhism is described as being enlightened to the impermanence of everything and discovering the path to freedom from suffering, that is dharma or Buddha s teachings. As humankind is always afflicted by various types of suffering, the fear of death is the most basic. The Buddha described his experience in terms of dharma as emptiness (śūnyatā), dependent origination (pratītya-samutpāda), impermanence (anityatā), suffering (duḥkha), and non-self (anātman). They are followed four principles of life which are birth (jāti), duration (sthiti), decay (jarā), and impermanence or destruction (anityatā). So Lord Buddha ceased to exist physically when he was eighty years old. His declaration of enlightenment expressed his confidence that his mind had realized eternal truths. The suffering which is present in all human 1
existence has been a constant concern of mankind. The Buddha s reply to this problem is a path of liberation from suffering, which is the most universally appealing characteristic of Buddhism. More than any other feature, it has enabled Buddhism to survive until the present. The existence and development of Buddhism over 2500 years has been known through two traditions of Buddhism, mainly, Hīnayāna (lower vehicle) and Mahāyāna (greater vehicle). 1 Among the Hīnayāna there are Vaibhāṣika or Sarvāstivāda and Sautrāntika schools. The Māhayāna tradition consists of two schools, 1) Mādhyamika (Śūnyavāda) and 2) Vijñānavāda (Yogācāra). In Hīnayāna tradition, the Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu is a work which occupies a prominent role in Sarvāstivāda school, which is a complete and systematic account of the abhidharma in Buddhist philosophy. The Abhidharmakośa is a treasury of abhidharma, which is a key of abhidharma text in verses written by Vasubandhu that summarizing Sarvāstivādin tenets. The Abhidharmakośa consists of nine chapters (kośasthānas). The first eight chapters with a total of about 600 verses (kārikā) are the main text and the ninth chapter in prose is an additional chapter as a kind of appendix. The verses are then commented on in the accompanying bhāṣya or exposition. Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya is an autocommentary of Vasubandhu on Abhidharmakośa-kārikā which is based on Sautrāntika and Vaibhāṣika. Therefore, the abhidharma in the Abhidharmakośa is the combination of viewpoints from Sautrāntika and summary the whole philosophical system of abhidharma in Sarvāstivāda from Vaibhāṣika. The subjects covered in Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya include all the main topics of abhidharma philosophy. Refutations of the 1 These two traditions derived from Sthaviravāda (Pāli: Theravāda) and Mahāsāṅghika. 2
views of the rival school of the Vaibhāṣikas are mentioned at many places in the commentary. Along with the original Sanskrit text, there are translations into Tibetan, Chinese, Mongolian, English and French. The Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu is a well-known Buddhist work for its harmonious synthesis of all great doctrines accepted in general by all the contemporary schools of Buddhism. The text is looked upon as an authoritative treatise of the Vaibhāṣikas, with three other principal schools of Buddhism viz., the Sautrāntikas, the Yogācāras and the Mādhyamikas who agree to accept it in spite of the difference in their sectarian viewpoints. The Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu occupies a very significant place in the history of Buddhism for its systematic and exhaustive treatment of the subject. It is also a key to understand the ancient Buddhist views on ontology (science of reality), psychology, cosmology, discipline and theory of salvation, mysticism, karma, dhātu, skandha and the Buddhist doctrine of dharma etc. In Buddhism, dharma is the doctrine, the universal truth common to all individuals at all times, proclaimed by the Buddha. Lord Buddha, dharma (his teachings), and the Saṅgha (community of believers) are the three jewels (Triratna) to which Buddhists go for refuge. The term dharma in the plural is used to describe the interrelated elements that create the empirical world. Dharma is the teachings of the Buddha (Buddhavacana), however, in the Abhidharmakośa, the dharma not only described as the teachings of the Buddha such as; duty, law, doctrine, events, and things, etc. but also described as phenomena, as well as states operate to physical and psychology of human beings. 3
The first two chapters of Abhidharmakośa contain treatment of the elements in relation to the dharma. The dharma is divided into seventyfive dharmas. This dharma is the background of the Yogācāra/Vijñāna school. Dharma is a fundamental concept in Buddhism, especially in Sarvāstivāda and it is the foundation for the development of later Buddhist schools such as Kosha school, Satyasiddhi school Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi school in China and Japan. It plays an important role in studying and understanding the Buddha s teachings. Furthermore, the concept of dharma in Abhidharmakośa is also attributed to the doctrine of śūnyatā of Śūnyatāvāda (Mādhyamika) with the doctrine of vijñaptimātrā of Vijñānavāda (Yogācāra) are two main philosophical systems of Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism. This teaching is also considered as the skill to deny the concept of ātman and to explain the concept of anātman in the light of pratītya-samutpāda doctrine in both traditions of Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna Buddhism. The main goal of my research is to focus on the Buddhist doctrines of dharma in Abhidharmakośa. This study will not only include the dharma thought in Abhidharmakośa which has been being paid attention to study and practice by all kinds of people in our society, but also opens a new aspect concerning our today s world. Besides, the doctrine of dharma in the Abhidharmakośa summarizes all systems of philosophy in Savāstivādins and it is a bridge between Hinayāna and Mahāyāna Buddhism, i.e. development of dharma in Yogācāra derived from Abhidharmakośa. In order to understand the importance of the value of dharma in Abhidharmakośa as well as its contribution to both Buddhist philosophy and psychology, it is necessary to study the problems which have been so far considered. I am 4
humbled to choose the topic which is entitled as A Critical Study of the Concept of Dharma as Depicted in the Abhidharmakośa Śāstra for my research work. I.2. Objectives of the Study The aim and objective of the topic is to study and analyze the concept of dharmas in Abhidharmakośa, as well as the practical implications to the human life. The main objectives would be threefold: 1) To present a general survey of Abhidharmakośa and the position of Abhidharmakośa in the abhidharma literature 2) To study and analyze the meaning of dharma as understood in Buddhism 3) Finally, to show some achievements and limitations of studying and understanding of the concept of dharma in other Buddhist schools, i.e. Sautrāntika, Mādhyamika and Yogācāra school. I.3. Review of related literature and research works There are few researches which have been already conducted by different scholars on the concept of dharma in Abhidharmakośa. In these works, the aspect of dharma is presented fairly accomplished. However, still more or less these studies are general type, and a complete and in-depth study on the concept of dharma in Abhidharmakośa has not been done yet. There are five books related to this topic. Let us have a brief review of these books which will help to understand the subject. 1. Aruna Haldar (2001). Some Psychological Aspects of Early Buddhist Philosophy Based on Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu, the Asiatic Society publications, Kolkata. 5
This work is written by Dr. Mrs. Aruna Haldar, is one of the reputed scholars in the field of Indian philosophy and applied psychology. This book introduces us to the Psychology as well as the relation between philosophy and psychology from the Buddhist point of view. In Buddhism, there are many statements which fore-shadowed the findings of modern scientists and philosophers. This work is a combination of knowledge of ancient Indian texts with that of modern works on Buddhist philosophy and psychology. Besides, the work gives an account of the origin and development of Buddhism as well as the works of Vasubandhu and reviews the abhidharma literature of Buddhism. This book also thoroughly analyses the doctrine of Sarvāstivāda and the Buddhist concepts of feeling, perception, consciousness and impression. 2. Dr. Lata Bapat (1994). Abhidharmakośa: A Study with a New Perspective, Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan publications, Delhi. Like many others on Abhidharmakośa works; this book discusses too pith abhidharma, based on very brief statements with further commentary by the author and a special reference to perspectives on man and his action. In this book, the author also made an attempt to point out that, the significance and the relevance to the nature of man and his action, suffering and the social stability and the welfare of the society, according to Vasubandhu. However, the author just discusses the concept of dharma in Abhidharmakośa is only covers the aspects of human nature and human action. 3. Dr. Sukomal Chaudhuri (1976). Analytical Study of the Abhidharmakośa, Published by Sanskrit College, Calcutta. 6
This book as the title suggest Analytical Study of the Abhidharmakośa, discussed with Abhidharmakośa, based on the original work of Vasubandhu. In this book, the author has illuminated the large picture that consists of eleven parts, which are mostly based on the nine chapters of the original text. Then, it almost encloses the main idea of the Abhidharmakośa with a general view of the meaning of the term dharma. It may be mentioned that the author had a great command over the language as well as the idea sources. Based on this work, my thesis will be developing deeper analysis and appraisal of the concept of dharma in Abhidharmakośa. 4. Indra Narain Singh (2010). An Introduction to Abhidharmakośa Bhāṣyam, Vidyanidhi Prakashan publications, Delhi. This work is very helpful as most of the text of the Abhidharmakośa is either in Sanskrit and translated into English. It is also an impediment to the students as well as to the scholars, who are interested in its learning. The present text contains only the description of the first chapter of the Abhidharmakośa and bhāṣyam, known as dhātunirdeśa. The chapter begins with the salutation verse, which offers prayer to the Buddha, the preacher of the Supreme Truth ; but in this work introduces only first two chapters of Abhidharmakośa which is not enough to comprehend about the conception of dharma as reflected in Abhidharmakośa. 5. Th. Stcherbatsky (1923, reprint 2003). The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the word Dharma, published by Asian Educational Services, Delhi. Stcherbatsky is one of the pioneering scholars of Buddhist Studies, who wrote, edited and translated several works. In this work, the author 7
has discussed tools, methods, and basic background of the conception of dharma. In the appendix, the book introduces the thought of Vasubandhu, the author of Abhidharmakośa, the fundamental principles of the Sarvāstivāda school. Although this book is very famous in Buddhism, but it only mentions about aspects of Buddhist teachings in general, it does not analysis in-depth the conception of dharma as reflected in Abhidharmakośa. Thus, a thorough analysis and appraisal of the concept of dharma in the Abhidharmakośa-śāstra and its relevance for the modern society have not been done yet. Therefore, there is a need to undertake such study. Nevertheless, no comprehensive research has been done on this topic so far. I.4. Scope and Methodology of Research I.4.1. The Scope and Source Materials The scope of this research is restricted to the concept of dharma in the Abhidharmakośa, with the range of reference to skandha, āyatana, dhātu rūpa, citta, and the all phenomena dharmas in Sarvāstivāda which belong to Hīnayāna Buddhism as well as Yogācāra in Mahāyāna Buddhism. Attempt is made to treat the concepts in greater detail with regards to its characteristics and functions. The material on which the present work is based is the original Pāli and Sanskrit literature viz. Dīgha Nikāya, Majjhima Nikāya, Dhammasaṅgaṇi, Kathāvatthu, Dīrgha Āgama, Dhātukāya, Dharmaskandha texts etc. The main source of this research is three books of the Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu: 8
1) The Abhidharmakośa in Sanskrit (Devanāgari and Romanized scripts) edited by V.V. Gokhale (published 1946) and Prahlad Prahan (1967, reprint 1975). 2) The Abhidharmakośa in Chinese was translated into Chinese by Paramārtha (563-567 A.D. Taishō 29; No. 1559) and Hsuan-tsang (651-654 A.D. Taishō 29; No. 1558, 1560). 3) The Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣya in English which is a translation of the French book by Louis De La Vallée Poussin (this book was published from 1921 to 1931 L Abhidharmakośa de Vasubandhu ), which is translated from original Chinese book of Hsuan-Tsang. The French book again translated into English by Dr. Subhadra (1983), Leo M. Pruden (1986, reprint 1991), and recently is Lodrō Sangpo (2012). In order to understand meaning and the function of dharma clearly, the researcher has used Sanskrit and Chinese correspondings in the footnote of this thesis. Moreover, in the thesis two appendices are included; 1) the table of 75 dharmas of Abhidharmakośa in comparison to 100 dharmas of Yogācāra, and 2) Abhidharmakośa-kārika in Sanskrit (Romanized scripts). I.4.2. Research Methodology The researcher has used historical as well as analytical and critical method to discuss the concept of dharma in Abhidharmakośa-śāstra. I.4.3. Outline of the Thesis The thesis consists of six chapters, including introduction and conclusion. The first chapter deals with introduction of the subject of research along with some explanations on the significance and relevance of the 9
subject. It also contains a critical survey of the researches already done on the topic fixing the scope of the present research. Methodology employed in carrying out this research is also recorded. This chapter is a general introduction about the importance of Abhidharmakośa-śāstra in Buddhism, especially in Sarvāstivāda of Hīnayāna tradition. It also contains a critical and exhaustive survey and comments in brief on some of the important research works. The second chapter introduces the concept of dharma in general, in Buddhism. This chapter discusses the origin and significance of the word dharma in Buddhism, especially in Theravāda, Sarvāstivāda, Mādhyamika, and Yogācāra School. Dharma and abhidharma in Buddhist literature and Abhidharmakośa, as well as different types of dharma in Pāli and Sanskrit literature are also discussed in this chapter. The third chapter deals with the concept of dharma in the Abhidharmakośa-śāstra. In this chapter, biography of Vasubandhu and overview of the Abhidharmakośa text is described with emphasis on the place of the Abhidharmakośa in the Buddhist Philosophy. This chapter also talks about the classification of dharma in both subjective and objective manners. The fourth chapter is an analysis of saṃskṛta and asaṃskṛta dharmas. The saṃskṛta dharmas consist of seventy-two dharmas in number; they are divided into four sub-groups, viz. rūpa (matter) which consists of 11 dharmas, citta (mind) has 1 dharma, caitta (mental functions) consists of 46 dharmas, and citta-viprayukta-saṃskāra (conditions disjoined from mind) consists of 14 dharmas. The asaṃskṛta dharmas are those which are not subject to cause or condition and they are transcendental, unchanging, eternal, and inactive. There are three 10
kinds of asaṃskṛta dharmas viz. ākāśa (space), pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (cessation through discrimination), and apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (cessation independent of discrimination). The last section of this chapter deals with the relationship of dharma between the Abhidharmakośa-śāstra and Yogācāra texts. The fifth chapter deals with the Buddhist dharma and human life. In this chapter, the philosophical significance of Buddhist theory of dharma, religious life, and the relevance of the theory of dharma to hetu, pratyaya, and phala are discussed. From this whole discussion, one can know the contribution of the theory of dharma to philosophy and psychology. Finally self transformation through the understanding of dharma is discussed in this chapter. The last chapter summarizes the previous chapters and offers concluding remarks. This chapter, asserts the important role of the concepts of dharma of Abhidharmakośa-śāstra in the Buddhist philosophy, and gives suggestions for further study and proposals for a modern view of Buddhist dharma and human life. Finally, an attempt is made in this chapter to indicate how further research may be conducted in order to fulfil a more complete picture of the dharma in early Buddhist thought, especially in Sarvāstivāda school and Yogācāra school. This study may further inspire to analyse dharma from Buddhist point of view. 11