Everything s An Argument Chapter 1: Everything Is an Argument
Arguments to Inform Convince Explore Make Decisions Meditate/Pray
Arguments to INFORM Presenting specific information to inform readers Example: Political ad Movie poster
Arguments to CONVINCE Focuses on readers trying to satisfy or convince them that you have thoroughly examined and presented information that merits attention. Example: Writing a research essay on the causes of soil erosion in southeast Alabama
Arguments to EXPLORE Usually show that there is merit in looking into a subject that there is an argument to be made. Opponent can be the status quo or current trend. Problem does exist writer or reader needs to solve it.
Arguments to EXPLORE Problem does exist writer or reader needs to solve it. Example: We have a problem with litter on campus.
Arguments to MAKE DECISIONS Closely allied with Exploratory arguments. Argue for a particular decision. Example: From the essay addressing soil erosion in Southeast Alabama, you might write a proposal which focuses on a possible solution to the problem.
Arguments to MEDITATE/PRAY Arguments can take form of meditation on a theme or of prayer. Pausing to consider or to gain peace of mind.
God is the fountain whence ten thousand blessings flow; To Him my life,my health, my friends And every good, I owe.
Occasion for Argument Past Present Future
Arguments about Past Forensic arguments: debates about what has happened in the past. Present evidence from past to justify conclusions. Rely heavily on precedents actions or decisions in past that influence policies or decisions in the present.
Arguments about Future Deliberative argument try to establish policies or project future outcomes
Arguments about Present Often about contemporary values Ethical premises/assumptions widely held within a society
Kinds of Arguments Arguments of Fact Arguments of Definition Arguments of Evaluation Proposal Arguments Did something happen? What is its nature? What is its quality? What action should be taken?
Arguments of Fact Facts can be proved or disproved with evidence or testimony. Concern: if something can easily be proven, it can t be argued. Joe has 32 teeth. Count em.
Arguments of Definition Often involves categorizing or defining terms. Is a human embryo a human being? Is abortion murder?
Arguments of Evaluation Common type of argument Argument of quality Makes some kind of judgment about topic Tahoe vs. Expedition: which is the better SUV for the price? Parks evaluation of Martin Luther King Jr. Noonan s evaluation of Ronald Reagan
Proposal Arguments Present evidence to show there is a problem; then, propose a solution. Recommend most viable course of action.
Everything s an Argument Chapters 2 & 3
Key Issues Regarding Arguments Making a connection to readers Understanding lines of argument Making a claim Shaping an argument Giving an argument style Managing the conventions of argument
Making a Connection to Reader Writers do not write in a cultural vacuum. Writers works are influenced by who they are. Race Religion Gender Ethnicity Class Intelligence
Making a Connection to Reader Readers perceptions of writer influence their reception of what has been written. Must think about readers perceptions, values, possible prejudices. Establish some connection with readers. Familiarity Presenting yourself as authority
Making a Connection to Reader Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me. And ain t I a woman?... I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother s grief, none but Jesus heard me. And ain t I a woman? Sojourner Truth Ain t I a Woman?
Four Types of Appeals Arguments based on Emotion Arguments based on Values Arguments based on Character Arguments based on Fact and Reason
Emotional Arguments Designed to appeal to the readers emotions and feelings. Can cause readers to think more carefully about subject. Persuading reader not to drink and drive telling a story of a teen or young mother killed by drunk driver
Emotional Arguments Sometimes we have to be wary because emotions can lead to unwise or impulsive judgments. Advertising Driving a certain car will make you feel superior to others. Wearing a certain brand of clothing will make you feel good about yourself because you are in style
Value-Based Arguments Closely related to emotional appeals Writer either Asks reader to live up to higher principles, respected traditions, or new values Complains that they have not done so Close ties with ceremonial arguments. Define or celebrate values/ideals of a society Be aware of the values/ideals of community.
Character-Based Arguments As writer, must seem honest, sincere, and trustworthy. Look for evidence of character in arguments Who is the author? Is writer an authority on topic/knowledgeable about topic? Is evidence presented full/complete, not slanted to writer s agenda? Does writer acknowledge and address opposition? Are sources documented? REMEMBER: these same questions will be used to analyze your writings.
Character-Based Arguments As author, you must consider Language Organization & structure Sense of authority
Facts and Reason-Based Arguments Writer must provide enough evidence to support argument. Test all assumptions and claims. Question every source and authority cited. data and information from reliable sources
Making a Claim Claim: statement of belief or truth Can be plainly stated (more traditional arguments). Can be inferred (in stories, anecdotes, etc.). Claims must be attached to reasons that support it and premises that uphold it to be an argument. Can have several claims in one essay. Look at relationship among them
Shaping an Argument Arguments must have logical structure, even if appeal uses emotion, values, or character. Aristotle asserted arguments had only 2 parts: Statement (claim) Proof (evidence)
Giving an Argument Style Have to think of the way the evidence is presented. Even logical, well-planned argument can be boring. Have to tailor your style to the topic What is most appropriate Style can tell readers what to expect Examples on pg. 40 1 st is straightforward and to-the-point 2 nd is humorous/tongue-in-cheek
READERS & CONTEXT Must always think about audience or readers when you present arguments. Must always address an intended audience.
SUBJECT PURPOSE WRITER READER
READERS & CONTEXT Different kinds of readers Ideal reader (exists in author s mind) Invoked reader (represented in the text) Real reader (ones who actually read text)
READERS & CONTEXT If potential readers do not feel connected to text in some way, then They will (probably) not be affected by your argument or They will not even continue to read.
Establish Credibility Ways to establish credibility: Demonstrate you are knowledgeable Highlight shared values Refer to common experiences Use language to build common ground Respect reader Almost impossible to guarantee credibility because readers are varied.
Establishing Credibility Demonstrate Knowledge Show readers you know what you are talking about Facts/statistics
Establishing Credibility Highlight Shared Values Find common values with the potential readers What community do you share? Refer to Common Experiences Build Common Ground Closely related to common experiences Establish a connection with readers Use pronouns
Establishing Credibility Respect Readers Do not speak down to readers Do not use offensive language