Spirituality in Finland: What Surveys Can Tell Us? Kimmo Ketola 1
Spirituality what does it signify? Easternisation of the West (Campbell 1999) Re-enchantment of the West (Partridge 2004; 2006) Spiritual revolution (Tacey 2004; Heelas & Woodhead, et al. 2005, Heelas 2008) Religious individualization (Luckmann 1967; Pollack & Pickel 2008) This-worldly, secularised religiousness (Wilson 1995; Bruce 2011) Capitalist takeover of religion (Carrette & King 2005) Trans-religious development across and beyond religious traditions; an ideology of progressive spirituality (Lynch 2 2007)
The spectrum of spirituality among Finns (Gallup Ecclesiastica 2011, N=4,930) The established religions are too bound up with obsolete male-dominated beliefs and practices 26% 25% 27% Direct personal experience of the divine is more important than what the religions and sacred scriptures teach 18% 24% 22% The world is currently in transition to the New Age, the age of Aquarius 5% 0% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% Completely agree Agree Partly agree 3
Various popular beliefs among Finns (Gallup Ecclesiastica 2011, N=4,930) I am interested in spiritual things and I am searching for new elements in my worldview Alternative medicine is often better than conventional western medicine in treating illnesses UFOs are reality and it is only a matter of time when we get watertight proofs My spiritual growth is important to me and I am willing to put money into it I am interested in astrology I believe in reincarnation and transmigration of the souls I am interested in meditation 9% 4% 6% 4% 4% 6% 4% 22% 18% 17% 18% 13% 14% 28% I believe that one can know about the future though divination 2% 9% 4 Completely agree 0% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Partly agree
European comparisons 5
Spirituality in European comparative perspective Dataset: ISSP 2008 (International Social Survey Programme) http://www.issp.org/ Data collection: 2007 2008 23 European countries N=32 374 6
ORTHODOX Russia Ukraine Cyprus CATHOLIC Slovenia Croatia Austria France Spain Belgium (Flanders) Ireland Czech R. Slovakia Portugal PROTESTANT Finland Great Britain Norway Sweden Denmark Germany (e.) MULTIPLE Latvia Netherlands N. Ireland Germany (w.) 7 Religious and spiritual self-identities in European countries (ISSP 2008) 6% 7% 6% 13% 12% 12% 8% 15% 14% 15% 15% 11% 17% 5% 19% 19% 18% 17% 24% 24% 7% 22% 21% 13% 8% 17% 13% 16% 28% 21% 31% 25% 22% 30% 32% 27% 32% 35% 22% 31% 33% 25% 29% 52% 31% 25% 33% 23% 20% 70% 15% 9% 16% 12% 12% 18% 13% 12% 15% 34% 12% 51% 30% 32% 36% 30% 30% 53% 27% 37% 41% 22% 22% 24% 35% 33% 26% 23% 43% 28% 34% 16% 0 % 20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % 100 % 4% 31% 19% 23% 17% 7% 14% 11% 15% 15% 14% 14% 15% 5% 9% 11% 14% 7% 8% 6% 7% 1% 6% I don't follow a religion, but consider myself to be a spiritual person interested in the sacred or the supernatural I don't follow a religion and don't consider myself to be a spiritual person I follow a religion and consider myself to be a spiritual person I follow a religion, but don't consider myself to be a spiritual person Can't choose No answer
The shares of those who don t follow a religion but consider themselves spiritual in different age cohorts (ISSP 2008) 100% Protestant countries 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 0% 1910-29 1930-39 1940-49 1950-59 1960-69 1970-79 1980-93 Denmark Finland Germany (east) Norway Sweden Great Britain 8
The shares of those who don t follow a religion but consider themselves spiritual in different age cohorts (ISSP 2008) 100% Catholic (western Europe) 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 0% 1910-29 1930-39 1940-49 1950-59 1960-69 1970-79 1980-93 Austria Belgium (Flanders) France Irland Portugal Spain 9
The shares of those who don t follow a religion but consider themselves spiritual in different age cohorts (ISSP 2008) 100% Catholic (eastern Europe) 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 0% 1910-29 1930-39 1940-49 1950-59 1960-69 1970-79 1980-93 Kroatia Tsekki Slovakia Slovenia 10
The shares of those who don t follow a religion but consider themselves spiritual in different age cohorts (ISSP 2008) 100% Orthodox countries 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 0% 1910-29 1930-39 1940-49 1950-59 1960-69 1970-79 1980-93 Cyprus Russia Ukraine 11
The shares of those who don t follow a religion but consider themselves spiritual in different age cohorts (ISSP 2008) 100% Multiple denominations 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 0% 1910-29 1930-39 1940-49 1950-59 1960-69 1970-79 1980-93 Germany (w.) Latvia Netherlands 12
ORTHODOX Ukraine Russia CATHOLIC Spain Protugal Ireland Croatia Austria Slovenia Belgium (Flanders) France Slovakia Czech R. PROTESTANT Great Britain Denmark Finland Sweden Norway Germany (e.) MULTIPLE N. Ireland Germany (w.) Latvia Netherlands 13 Own way of connecting with God among those who never go to church 5% 7% 6% 4% 8% 5% 14% 17% 17% 19% 16% 17% 15% 7% 15% 22% 23% 21% 14% 15% 29% 36% 27% 26% 12% 17% 19% 15% 20% 30% 22% 11% 7% 27% 23% 19% 18% 24% 38% 31% 11% 12% 19% 46% 17% 14% 15% 14% 18% 8% 25% 3% 7% 15% 26% 18% 7% 9% 12% 13% 9% 40% 25% 11% 8% 17% 6% 64% 13% 7% 15% 24% 34% 11% 42% 32% 35% 18% 20% 36% 18% 7% 12% 23% 35% 21% 13% 13% 30% 11% 2% 0 % 10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 % 60 % 70 % 80 % 90 % 100 % 25% 12% 13% 27% 22% 30% 14% 8% 14% 21% 17% 6% 11% 19% 11% 5% 14% 14% 14% 8% 5% 3% 0% 4% 8% 15% 9% 5% 3% 2% 2% 9% 8% 1% 6% 6% 4% 6% 5% 4% 3% 5% 6% 0% 2% 1% 2% 2% Completely agree Agree Neither agree nor disagree Disagree Completely disagree Don't know No answer
Spiritual practitioners 14
The data Gallup Ecclesiastica 2011 Survey Carried out by TNS-Gallup Oy, Commissioned by the Church Research Institute Data collected 18.11. 2.12.2011 Web-based data collection, TNS Gallup Forum, consisting of 40,000 Finnish members, representative of Finnish population of the ages 15 75. Invitation was sent to 7,663 members. N=4,930 (response rate 64,3 %) Weighted so as to be representative of Finnish population of the ages 15 75 in terms of age, sex, and area of living. 15
Spiritual practice among Finns Less Not at At least A few At least than all in once a times a once a once a recent Daily week month year year years Total Pray 20,3 9,1 9,8 12,1 8,8 39,9 100 Meditate 2,0 3,4 5,8 3,4 8,7 76,6 100 Use another method of spiritual growth 1,7 3,8 4,1 4,7 7,4 78,4 100 Read the Bible 2,3 2,2 5,1 11,9 17,1 61,4 100 16
Demographic profile of those who meditate or practice spirituality at least once a week Regular meditators N=266 (wt) [288 (n/w)] Regular spiritual practitioners N=275 (wt) [264 (n/w)] Men Women 15-29 30-39 40-49 50-64 65-75 Capital area Urban Densely populated Rural Basic education Lower secondary Higher secondary Tertiary Total 3,2 7,6 4,3 4,2 5,5 6,5 6,2 6,0 5,8 3,8 5,2 3,6 3,2 5,7 6,9 5,4 Men Women 15-29 30-39 40-49 50-64 65-75 Capital area Urban Densely populated Rural Basic education Lower secondary Higher secondary Tertiary Total 3,5 7,7 5,0 6,8 6,4 5,0 5,5 6,0 5,9 5,3 4,5 3,6 3,6 6,4 6,4 5,6 0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 0,0 5,0 10,0 15,0 20,0 17
Belief in God among meditators and practitioners of spirituality I believe in God as taught by Christianity I believe in God, although rather differently from what the church teaches I really don't know if I believe in God or not I doubt the existence of God I do not believe in God Can't say/ don't want to say Regular meditators (N=265) 24,9 55,1 8,3 2,3 6,0 3,4 Regular spiritual practitioners (N=276) 16,3 45,7 13,0 4,3 15,2 5,4 All (N=4,930) 25,6 22,2 15,6 7,4 24,3 4,9 0 % 10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 % 60 % 70 % 80 % 90 % 100 % 18
Frequency of prayer Daily At least once a week Few times a month At least once a year Less than once a year Not at all in recent years Regular meditators 44 22 9 5 3 17 Regular spiritual practitioners 27 16 10 8 6 34 All 20 9 10 12 9 40 0 % 10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 % 60 % 70 % 80 % 90 % 100 % 19
Participation in religious services At least once a week At least once a month A few times a year At least once a year Less often Not at all in recent years Regular meditators 3 8 17 15 20 38 Regular spiritual practitioners 1 4 14 17 18 47 All 2 4 13 14 25 43 0 % 10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 % 60 % 70 % 80 % 90 % 100 % 20
Summary Meditators and practitioners of spiritual methods Are as likely as the rest of the population to believe in God in conventional ways They are also much more likely to believe in God in unorthodox ways They are more likely to pray than the rest of the population 21
Practitioners of yoga 22
Method and sample Postal survey distributed along the Finnish yoga magazine Ananda (issue 2/2013. June) to all subscribers and to others who bought the magazine (1,860 issues sold). N=279 (15% response rate) 23
Descriptive statistics Gender: 83.3 % women Age: average 43. median 41 (range: 23-73) mode 45. Education: Tertiary education: 70.5 % (nationally 28.2% in 2011) Higher-degree level (Master s degree): 43.2 % Lower-degree level (Bachelors degree): 7.9 % Lowest level (polytechnics): 19.4 % Secondary education: 28.9 % (nationally 39.5 %) Upper secondary general school: 5.8 % Vocational qualifications & vocational schools: 23.1 % Primary education: 0.7 % (nationally 32.2 %) 24
Living area: Big city: 54.7 % Big city suburb: 12.6 % Other city: 20.9 % Rural area: 13.9 % Descriptive statistics Membership in religious organizations: None: 51.6 % (nationally: 22.1 %. in the end of 2013) Evangelical Lutheran Church: 40.8 % (nationally 75.3 %) Other: 7.5 % (nationally: 2.6 %) 25
Descriptive statistics 94.6% of the respondents have a regular yoga or other spiritual practice. Average frequency of practice 4.7 times per week (SD 2.9; Md 4.5; Mode 7) Average length of time practiced since starting is 8.6 years (SD 7.9; Md 6.5; Mode 10. range 0-46 years) 26
Which of the following types of yoga have you tried? (%) 27 Astanga yoga 84.6 Hatha yoga (Finnish Yoga Association) 61.3 Iyengar yoga 38.0 Yin yoga 32.3 Kundalini yoga 30.1 Vinyasa flow 21.1 Bikram/ Hot yoga 20.4 Raja yoga 16.5 Power yoga 13.6 Tibetan yoga 13.6 Sivananda yoga 13.3 Sahaja yoga 11.8 Slow yoga 10.8 Kriya yoga 8.6 Purna yoga 6.1 Acroyoga 4.3 Natha yoga 3.9 Men's yoga 3.2 Vini yoga 1.8 Other 21.9
Most important reasons for practicing yoga Primary reason (% of all) Mentioned (% of all) To increase my wellbeing 50.9 90.7 To connect with my inner self 17.9 69.2 To relieve stress and to relax 8.2 72.0 To get connected with God/the Absolute 6.5 29.0 To change my state of consciousness 6.1 39.1 To awake my inner capacities 5.7 56.3 To realize the true nature of phenomena 5.0 36.6 To heal a specific physical ailment 4.3 40.5 To praise and give thanks to the Highest 1.4 16.5 To prepare myself for prayer/worship 1.1 10.0 To obtain paranormal powers 0.4 3.9 28
Theology and metaphysics Behind all the multiplicity there is exists a single spiritual principle 20% 20% 17% 28% 7% 5% 4% The existence consists fundamentally of two basic principles, matter and spirit 14% 24% 19% 24% 7% 8% 4% The universe is a product of cosmic evolution driven by natural forces 12% 23% 18% 35% 5% 3% 3% There exists an ineffable divine principle, which cannot be personified 16% 18% 16% 31% 7% 4% 7% Jesus death on the cross brought humans a unique chance to gain salvation 5% 4% 8% 25% 8% 22% 28% There are no gods or supernatural powers 5% 6% 4% 14% 13% 18% 39% God is a person whose will can be known through revelation 2% 4% 7% 32% 13% 17% 25% The ultimate reality is most appropriately depicted in the form of a Goddess 1% 2% 6% 40% 18% 24% 0 % 10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 % 60 % 70 % 80 % 90 % 100 % Completely agree Agree Somewhat agree 29 Neither agree nor disagree Somewhat disagree Disagree Completely disagree
Factor analysis of the worldviews of practitioners of yoga (N=257) Factor analysis 1 revealed 6 latent dimensions: Esoteric (9.1 % of rotated variance explained) Traditionalist (5.9 % of rotated variance explained) Theistic (5.6 % of rotated variance explained) Monistic (5.0 % of rotated variance explained) Immanent view (4.9 % of rotated variance explained) Indian heritage (4.0 % of rotated variance explained) 1 Method: Generalized Least Squares. Varimax-rotation with Kaiser normalization. Factorability: KMO =.79. Bartlett s test of sphericity: χ 2 (595) = 2431.05; p =.000. Model fit: χ 2 (265) = 239.38; p =.869. Total variance explained: 35 %. 30
The shares of different types of practitioners Type of worldview % agreeing in the sample (> 5 in the scale) Immanent 70.3 Monistic 60.6 Esoteric 44.1 Traditionalist 40.9 Indian heritage 17.6 Theistic 15.1 31
Immanent view Highest factor loadings (>.30): The aim of yoga practice is to increase the life force and joy of one s body (.863) The aim of yoga is to control the physical processes (e.g., Breath, nervous system) as perfectly as possible (.449) Yoga is not about renunciation but rather about acceptance of the human totality and finding the joy of life (.445) The purpose of human life is to develop and realize our natural capacities (.427) 32
Monism (advaita) Highest factor loadings (>.30): Behind all the multiplicity there exists a single spiritual principle (.773) There exists an ineffable divine principle. which cannot be personified (.663) All religions lead to the same goal (.372) Unmediated personal experience of the Divine is more important than what religions and holy scriptures teach (.324) 33
Esoteric/New Age Highest factor loadings (>.30): Different natural materials. such as crystals. stones and minerals. have their own energetic natures. which can be utilized to one s advantage (.884) Stars and planets influence earthly events in subtle ways (.716) It is useful to seek help and guidance from invisible spiritual beings ( ) for instance through channeling and mediumship (.582) The original cause of many illnesses are often on the spiritual level (.491) There are truths in Ayrveda that official medicine does not yet know about (.442) Choices and decisions in life should be made solely by listening to one s inner voice (.422) There are no gods or supernatural powers (-.438) Many alternative treatments are not backed by sufficient scientific evidence and therefore one should be sceptical about them (-.413) 34
Traditionalism Highest factor loadings (>.30): We easily have a delusionary view of our spiritual state and therefore we need an outer spiritual teacher (.657) In the path of yoga it is necessary to study classic yoga texts (.640) One s own practice is central on the path towards divine realization (.520) To progress on the spiritual path, the practitioner has to give up eating meat (.456) To progress spiritually, one has to gradually renounce material pleasures (.442) Controlling the mind and senses is essential in spiritual 35 28.9.2015 development (.377) Nordic Lutheran Folk Chuches and New Spirituality / Helsinki.
Indian heritage /tantrism Highest factor loadings (>.30): Spiritual paths stemming from the East are more authentic and trustworthy than others (.659) Although materially poor, India is spiritually more advanced than the West (.471) The existence consists fundamentally of two basic principles. matter and spirit (.334) The ultimate reality is most appropriately depicted in the form of a Goddess (.332) 36
Theism Highest factor loadings (>.30): Jesus death on the cross brought humans a unique chance to gain salvation (.692) God is a person whose will can be known through revelation (.628) Humans can never approach God through their own capacities, it can only happen through God s grace (.550) There are no Gods or supernatural powers (-.537) 37
Correlations between types of worldviews Esoteric Traditionalist.167 ** Theistic.334 **.182 ** Monistic.463 **.234 **.210 ** Traditiona list Theistic Monistic Immanent Immanent.193 ** -.077.016.126 * Indian/tantric.336 **.333 **.322 **.316 **.179 ** **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). 38
Spirituality and worldly success Esoteric/New Age.376 ** Traditionalist.210 ** Theistic.050 Monistic.361 ** Immanent.165 ** Indian heritage.210 ** **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). Treading on the spiritual path also helps one to succeed in work and in personal relationships 39
Spirituality and business Esoteric/New Age.281 ** Traditionalist -.036 Theistic -.001 Monistic.100 Immanent.078 Indian/tantric -.034 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). It is completely acceptable to sell products and services connected to spirituality for profitable business 40
Summary The sample consists of a group of predominantly urban, highly educated and mostly middle-aged female practitioners. Their worldviews were quite diverse. Analysis revealed six worldview dimensions: 1) immanent, 2) monistic, 3) esoteric, 4) traditionalist, 5) Indian heritage, and 6) theistic. The first two were by far the most prevalent in the data: over 70 % of the respondents agreed with the immanent view and over 60 % of the monistic view, while the theistic was the most unpopular (15 %). 41
Conclusion: It works for me This-worldliness: it does not construct itself as negation of the body and the joys of the world. What happens here and now rather than what happens after death Individualism: individual s own experience is taken seriously; cultivation of feelings, emotions and states of mind > meditation Practical rather than cognitivetheoretical; normative authority is weak > bodily practices 42 Yoga Journal special issue Yoga for Weight Loss (Oct 2012)
Thank you! 43