Yāqūt s Quotations From The Book of Ibn Faḍlān

Yāqūt s Quotations From The Book of Ibn Faḍlān In the following passages I have relied on Wüstenfeld s edition of Yāqūt s Muʿjam al-buldān, which I have emended on occasion, to fit with the readings favored in my published edition of the text. In order to facilitate comparison with my edition of the Mashhad recension, I have included in the translation the paragraph numbers from my edition to which Yāqūt s quotations correspond. 1 1

1 1 2 1 ض ل ا ب أ ح د ب ل اا ك ت ق أ... ر ه أ ه ل ا ل ب ل ل ر. ل ب ل ة و إ ل ى ب ل ا دا ل ص إ ت ل ت در ح ل ا د ر س و ل ال ق ب ا ش د ر ب س ب ل ا عل ا ب ل ل ا س ر ت إ ل ى ال ت ل ك س أ ل ت ه ع ه ل ل ل ع ق د ا لخ ل ق د ا ل ر ل ا ظ ع غ ب ل أ ب ره أ خ ل ا ك ا و ل ل أ س ا ل ل ا ا ل د و ل ل ب ل ا ه أ ل ا ب ل د ل ا و ل ا ت و ل ك ك ا ر و وك ا ل ا ك ت ا خ ب و ه و او ح د ا إ ل ى ل ه ر إ ت ت ل و ه و ل ه ر ب ل ا خ ل ا ر ر و ل ت ا ا و ل ق ل ق ق د ك ل ت ال أ ل ل ا و ل ل ة ع ا ح ل ل او ق د و ا ل أ ش ع ر إ ل ه د ا ل ه ر ق د د و ط غ ه ى ل ا ؤ وه ق ل ا ل ا ل ل ل ا ه ذ د ه ا ل د ل ر و ل س ل ل ا غ ع ر ت عرب ل ا أ ة ك ا ل إ ل ا ء ر ت ال ى عت ل ت عت ل ه إ د ب ر ت ل ط و ل ه ا ث ك ل ا ع شس ر ح ت ى س ر ت إ ل ى ا ل ه ر و و ق ا ل ت ح و ت ل ر ب ك ا ت هع أ ك ا ر ل ا ك و ا ل ق د و ر و أ ه ب أ ك ا ر ش ب ر و ع ل ا ه ل ب ذ ذ إ و د ر أ س ه ك ا د ر ا عتا ب د ر ا ع ر ع ع أ ر ه ود ا خ ل ل ا د ا خ ت ل ا ق ل و ا ل ع ل و ل ب ل ع ه أ ا ك ل ا و ح د ه ة ش ب ر ا ر ظ ع ق ب ل ل ا ك ل ه و ه و ل ا كت ل ك و ل ا ر د عت ل ى ا ظ ل ر ح ت ل ت ه إ ل ى ل و ك ا ب ت ت إ ل ى أ ه ل و س و أ و ه أ و و ل أ و ع ه عر و أ ه د ر ت ل أ أ هل س ر ه أ ش ة ث ا ل ث ى ا عت ل ل ه و ك ل ئ ا ل ل ت ل ة ع ر ه ح ل ه ك ح ب ل ل ا ق و ك ا ه ا ب ل ح ر إ و ل ه ب و ل ا ب ل ل ا عت ل ى ث ل ا ث ة أ ش ه ر ح و ر ء ا ل ا و ح د ب د ة و س ك ة ا ب ل ح ر ا ك ل هل ل ى ل ت ل ا ل ه ر خ ب ل ع ل ب ض ل ع ل ه ل ا ل ا ت ى ب ل ط ه ه و و ع ل ل ه و ر ب ق ذ د ل ك ا ش ت ك و ذ د ل ب ق د ر ك ا ل كت ه و ك ا ل ة ع ل ل ه إ أ خ ب و ل ا ك ل ذ د عت ل ى ه ا ب ق ل ت و عتا د ت إ ل ى ا ب ل ح ر و ه ت ذ د ا و ل ل ه إ د أ خ و ل ا ت ا و ب أ س ر ا ب ل ح ر و ل ض ع ا ق ط ا ل س ت ك ع ه ه ا ر خ أ ل ه إ ا ب ل ح ر و ل ل ح ط ة إ د ر ا د ه بو ت ب ه عت ل ة ل ا ل ال ت ل ك و أ ل ا ل ر ت ل ع د د ه ة ث عت ل ق ق ث ه بو ا ل س د ا ل ذ د ب ل ا ت ا و ح ل إ ئ ل ة د ا. ع ل ه ل ت ت أ ر ح ر ه ل ا ت ب ل ل و خ ر ح ت 2 2

Itil 1... I read the following in the written account of Aḥmad ibn Faḍlān ibn al-ʿabbās ibn Rāshid ibn Ḥammād, the envoy of al-muqtadir to the realm of the Ṣaqālibah (i.e., the people of Bulghār): [68] I learned that a giant lived there. When I arrived, I asked the king about this, and he replied, Yes, he used to live among us, but he died. He was not one of the local inhabitants in fact, he was not really human. This is his story. A group of merchants went to the Itil, one day away, as is their custom. Now, this river was in spate and had burst its banks. Barely a day later a group of merchants came back and said, Your Majesty, there is a man who has followed the course of the river. If he is from a community close by, then we cannot remain in our homes. We will have to migrate. So I rode to the river with them. I was surprised by what I found when I got there a man twelve cubits tall, using my forearm as a measure, with a head the size of a huge cooking-pot, a nose more than a span in length, two great eyes, and fingers longer than a span. He unnerved me, and I was gripped by the very terror that had gripped the others. We tried to speak to him, but he did not answer. He just looked at us. So I had him brought to my residence and wrote to the inhabitants of Wīsū, three months distant, asking them for information. They wrote back: He is one of the Gog and Magog, who live three months away from us in a state of absolute nakedness. The sea separates us. They live on the far side of the sea, on its shore. They mate with one another, like the beasts of the field. Every day the great and glorious God provides them with a fish from the sea. They come one by one with their knives and cut as much as they need to feed them and their dependents. If they take more than they need, they develop a pain in their stomach. Their dependents also develop a pain in their stomachs. Should he die, then they all die, too. When they have what they need from the fish, it flips over and is taken back into the sea. This is how they live day by day. On one side we are separated from them by the sea. They are hemmed in by mountains on all other sides. A wall separates them from the gate from which they will swarm forth. When almighty God intends them to swarm forth into the inhabited lands, He will cause the wall to be breached, the sea will dry up, and the fish will no longer be provided. The king said, He stayed with me for a while, but he developed an illness in his chest that proved terminal. I went to see his bones. They filled me with great fear. 1.1 1.2 3 3

3 1 د ل ش ع ر أ ض و ل ه ر ا ء ه ة ل ا ب ت ق د ذ د ل و ه ل ه ل و أ ش د ه ل ى ل ت ل ا ل ه ر ح ه ؤ ل ل ل ا ل و د أ ب ة ه وره ة ش و ر ة ع و ر د ب ل ل ل ى إ ل ه ر ت د ل د ال ق إ و ا ل ض ق ص ة ا ب ص ح ت ه و ا ل ل ا س ر أ ت ب ل ل ع د ه ة خ س. 1 2 ر د غ ب ا ش ه ح ل ا د ب ا ش د ر ب س ب ل ا عل ا ض ل ا ب أ أ ح د ب ل س ر ت در ل ل ه د ق ال ق ا ل ا وك... ل ا ق د أ ل س و ه و و أ ه ل ك ا س ل ل ا إ ل ى ت ل ك ا صل ل ب ل ة و د ب ح ل ى و ث ؤ ال و و ل ى أ ر خ ى ح ع ص ل ا ش ل ا ه د ذ د ر ك ح ة ا لس ئ ل ا إ ل ا ا ل ش س ا رع ا لخ ل و ل ه لع ع ض عت ل ه ب ل ا د ه كص د. غ ذ ا ا ل ل ش ع ر ر س ة ۳۰٩ ل ل ع د د ك ل ا ا ل ل ه ص ع ر ك ا د و عتا أ ل ى ا د إ د غ ل ب ل ا ه أ ش د ا ل ح ذ د ر و د ك 2 2 د 1 ح د ر ذ غ ا ل ل ش ع ر ا ل ا أ ت ا ر ك ل ل هل و ق ا د ل ب ا ل ق ع و و رر ل ت ه ت ت ل ل ى ق ا ل ر ت ل ا ل ر ت ل ص ع ق ه و أ ش د ه إ ق د ا ل ا عت ل ى ا ل س ر ش ا ل ا أ ت ا ر ك و أ ق د ر ه ل ا أ ل ح ل و ه ق ذ د ل و ت رك ا ه و خ أ ق ص ا ل ق ه ل ب أ س عر ص ق ط ق ه د ر و ز ر ر ت ت ا ل ا و ح د ه ل ل ه و أ ك ا ت ل و ا ل ق ه ل ب ع أ كت ه و ل ا و ق د ل ا خ د ل ا ر ق د أ ل س و ك ا ل ا ع ل ا ر ت ل ه ك ا د ق ل ا ه و ل ق د ه د ح ا و ا ك ل ه ث ل ح س ل و ل ل ل ل ر ا آ د 2 و ذ د ق ت ل ة ث وب ه ق ص ع ل ب ظ ل ط ع ر أ خ ق ب ت ل ل و س د ا ر أ و ل ل ء ع د و أ ل ت ل و ل ق لع ل عت ل ه إ د ر ا د س ع ك ا ت ت ح خ ح ب ش ة عت ل ى ق د ر ا إ ل ا ول د ه ل ا ح ت ه ر ا ع ل ب ك ا د و ك ا د ت ق ل ل ل ت ر ح ل ا س ل ب ض ل ع ل ه ب ل ل ل و ل ل ره و ه ك ل س و دا غ ع ت ش ث ل ه ت سل أ ع ر خ رح ع ل ه ر ب ه ل ل ل ا أ رح ب ر و ش لل ر ل ه ا ث ع ش س ر ر ب ل ا ش لل ل ء ب ر و صلل ب ر و لل ط ر ب ر و ل ل ع أ ر ر ب ر و ل ل ل ا س ب ر و ل ل د ا و ب ب ر و ل ل ل ا ء ب ر و لل ت ل ب ر و لل ل ر ب ر و ل ل و ت ب ت ه و ؤ ل ا ء ه أ ا ه إ ل ع ع ا ل س ل ا ء ه و ب أ ك ا ر ب ر و ل ل ا أ ر ض ب ر ا و ل ب ر ا ل ذ د ه ل ل ح ل و و د ح ل ل ا و و ل ل ل ا ل و ق ا ا ع ل ب ل ك ش ك ه ت ل ر ل ا ل ع ل س ر ه د ح ا و ا ك ل ل ق و ض ر ى ت ل ب ت ل ع د ب ت ل ع د ا ل س ت ك و ل ئ ة ب ت ل ع د ا ل ح ل ا ت و ل ئ ة ه ة ئ ل ا ك ل أ و ر ل ل ا ا ا ع ت ل و ك ر ر د. ا ل ب لد ا : ا ل ب ا ش ق ع 1 ل ا ل ب لد ا ح : د. ع 2 ل 4 4

Bāshghird May Almighty God have mercy on the author. I take no responsibility for this and similar statements he makes. I give no guarantee of their accuracy. Ibn Faḍlān s tale of how al-muqtadir sent him to Bulghār is still preserved. It is well known and popular with people. I saw many copies of it. 1.3 Bāshghird 2... The king of the Ṣaqālibah and the people of his realm had converted to Islam. The Commander of the Faithful, al-muqtadir bi-llāh, sent Aḥmad ibn Faḍlān ibn al-ʿabbās ibn Rāshid ibn Ḥammād as his envoy to bestow on the king a robe of honor and teach him the rules of Islam, according to the sharia. Al-Muqtadir was Ibn Faḍlān s patron. Muḥammad ibn Sulaymān was also Ibn Faḍlan s patron. Ibn Faḍlān left a description of all his experiences from the time of his departure from Baghdad, in the month of Safar, 309 [ June, 921], until the time of his return. He wrote the following as part of his account of the Bāshghird: [37] We stopped in the territory of a tribe of Turks called the Bāshghird. We were on high alert, for they are the wickedest, most powerful, and most ferocious of the Turks. When they attack they take no prisoners. In single combat they chop off your head and make off with it. They shave their beards. They eat lice by carefully picking over the hems of their tunics and cracking the lice with their teeth. Our group was joined by a Bāshghird who had converted to Islam. He used to wait on us. I saw him take a louse he found in his clothing, crack it with his fingernail and then lick it. Yum! he said when he saw I was watching him. [38] Each carves a piece of wood into an object the size and shape of a diadem and hangs it round his neck. When they want to travel or take the field against the enemy, they kiss it and bow down before it, saying, My lord, do such and such with me. I said to the interpreter, Ask one of them to explain this. Why does he worship it as his lord? Because I came from something like it. I acknowledge this alone as the giver of life, he replied. Some of them claim that they have twelve lords: a lord for winter, a lord for summer, a lord for rain, a lord for wind, a lord for trees, a lord for people, a lord for horses, a lord for water, a lord for night, a lord for day, a lord for death, a lord for life, and a lord for the earth.3 The lord in the sky is the greatest, but he acts consensually, and each lord approves 2.1 2.2 5 5

ت ل ل ر ح ت ا ل ك ار ك ل ا و أ ه ز و ه ر ل ا ا و ل رب و ق و ل ا أ ع د ا ئ ل ه ك ا ه ك ا عر و أ ل ار ا ل ك ت ل ع ر ك ل ا ذ د ل ك و ل ل ا و ه ذ د ه ر ك ب ل ا ل ا أ ل ار ب ع د ا و ا ل ك ا و و ر ا ء ه ل ل ه ر ز ا و ب ل ع د ل ا ع ر ب ع د و ل ل ذ د ل ك. ا ل ا ء أ ع د 3 2 و ل ا ء. ه ؤ ع ه ل ح ا ل د ه 1 3 2 3 ب ل ل ر ت د ر ل ل ه و أر س ل ا و إ ل ى ب غ ل د ا د ل ا ت ل ك ب ل ل ر و أ ه ل ل ق د أ لس ا و أ لا ال ق ك ا و... ل ا لصل ا و ت ا و ل ش س ا ر ئل ع ل ك ل د ل ع ل ه س أ ل و ه إ ت د ر ذ د ل ك و ر س و ل ا ل عر و ال ق س ب ب ل ا عل ا ب ا ل ض ق أ ت ر ل ل ة ع ت ل ل أ ح د ب و ر ب سل ب إ لس ا ه أ ق عت ل ى ا ل ا ل ل ب د ة ذ ك ر ه إ ل ى ت ل ك ا ل ص ت د ر ل ل ل ل ا ر س و ل ا ل ق س د ب ح ل ى ح ل ا د و ر ا ش د 1 ب ل إ عتاد أ ل ى د إ غ ل دا ب ل ص ذ د ا ا ه ده ا ش ل ل ل ل ل ل. ت د ر ا ل ق ؤ ت ل ط و ر 2 ت ل ك ا صل ل ب ل ة إ ل ى أ ر ا ل و ك ت ل ش ب ل س ب ل ل ل ا صو ل ك اا ل ه س د ا ب و ا لس ئ ل ا إ ل ا س ا رع ث ل ه ه ه ق ا ل د و ل ع ر ه ش ك ص ع إ أ ه ل ه أ ل ه س ل عت ل ه ا ل د ع و ه ة ح ع ص ب ل د ه و أ ق ل ر ت ل ك ت ه و س أ ل ه بك ل ا ء ح ص و ك ب ص ل ه ب ر ا كص ق ت ل ا ا سل ر ل ه ذ د را ل ح ر 3 ب د أ أ ل ى ذ د ل ك و ك ا ح ب إ ل ه ل ل ه ال ت ل وك ال ت ح ص ع ل وك ا ل ا س ا ر ا ل ق ل ء ا و ل ل ا أ ه د إ ل ه او إ ل ا ش ا ر ء ه ة ا ل ك ل ب عت ل ه و ت لس ق أ ل ب ا ع ل ا د ك ة و ل ى ذ د ر ا ل ح ر 4 ل ل ر ح ل ه ة ا لسل ل س و س ا ل ر س ا ل ر س و ل س ة ۳۰٩. ا د ى ع ش س ره ة ل ل ة خ ل ت ص ع ر ا ل لس ا إ ل ح ا ل ب لد ا : ا لح ز ر. ا ل ب لد ا : ا لح ز ر ع 4. ل ا ل ب لد ا : ب لط و ا ر. ع 3 ل ا ل ب لد ا : ا أ سد. ع 2 ل ع 1 ل 6 6

Bulghār of the actions of his partners. God is exalted above what the wrongdoers and the repudiators say!4 Ibn Faḍlān said: We noticed that one clan worships snakes, another fish, and another cranes. They told me that they had once been routed in battle. Then the cranes cried out behind them, and the enemy took fright, turned tail, and fled, even though they had routed the Bāshghird. They said, These are our lord, because they have routed our enemies. This is why they worship cranes. This is what he says they said. 2.3 Bulghār 5... The king of Bulghār and his subjects had converted to Islam during the reign of al-muqtadir bi-llāh. They sent an envoy to Baghdad to inform al- Muqtadir of this and to petition him to send them people to teach them how to perform their prayers correctly and acquaint them with the rules of Islam, according to the sharia. I have not been able to discover the cause of their conversion. I read an epistle that Aḥmad ibn Faḍlān ibn al-ʿabbās ibn Rāshid6 ibn Ḥammād wrote. He was the envoy of al-muqtadir bi-llāh to the king of the Ṣaqālibah, and his patron was Muḥammad ibn Sulaymān. In the epistle he gave an account of all his experiences, from his departure from Baghdad until his return. He said: [2] When the letter of Almis, son of Shilkī Bilṭawār the king of the Ṣaqālibah, was delivered to al-muqtadir bi-llāh, the Commander of the Faithful, the king petitioned the caliph to send people to instruct him in law and acquaint him with the rules of Islam according to the sharia, to construct a mosque and build a minbar from which he could proclaim al-muqtadir s name throughout his kingdom. He also beseeched him to build a fort to protect him against the kings who opposed him. His requests were granted. [3] The representative of the king of the Ṣaqālibah at court was Nadhīr al-ḥaramī. I, Aḥmad ibn Faḍlān, began by reading al-muqtadir s letter to the king, presenting him with the official gifts designated, and supervising the jurists and instructors. The caliph s envoy was Sawsan al-rassī. Sawsan s patron was Nadhīr al-ḥaramī. We traveled from Baghdad, City of Peace, on Thursday the twelfth of Safar, 309 [ June 21, 921]. 3.1 3.2 7 7

3 3 4 3 ت ل ل ر ل ل ب ة ل ا ل ط و ل س ر ش ح ه ص ل د ا ا ل ب ل ى إ ل ق ل ى خ و ا ر ر ز ث ذ ا ل ا ر ل ه ا ل ط ر إ ر د ك ث ل ل ث و و ل ل ة و ه ل ا ل ه عت ل ى س ره ة ل ل ا ك اا ل ا ت ل ك ا صل ل ب ل ة و ه و ا ل ذ د ص د ق ل ر ا خ أ ة ا ل ذ د ت ح ت د ه إ و خ و ت ه و أ و ل ا د ه ل ت س ق ب ل و ل ا و هع ع ل ل ا بر ل ا ت س ق ل ل ل ا ال ت ل و ك ا ل ا ل ا ل ا ه و ك ب س ه ل ل ا ر آ ت ل ق خ س و ر س و ل ر ا و ع ل ا ل ل ا ص ر ل ا ه عت ل ى ر ل و حلل ا و ل ا ز ل ل ا ل ق ل ل ر ك ه د ر ا ه ث ر ل عت ل ل ا و ل ب ص ل ل ا ا ل ا ك ا ا ر ل ه و ك د ا ش ل خر ز ل ر ل ا ت س ة و ۳١۰ ك ا ل ا و ص و ل ل ا إ ل ه و ا ل ا أ ح د ل ا ث ت ع ش س ره ة ل ل ة ت لخ ال ح ر ك ا و أ ء ل ا ل ل ب ر و ل ا أ ق ل ا إ ل ى و ا د ك ة خ و ا ر ر ز ب س ع ال ل ة ا ل ر ل ك ة و ه ب ل ل ا ك ل ل ق ة ا أ ض ه و خ و ا ص ه ل س ع ا و ا ر ء ه ل ل ا ح ت ى ع ا ت ت ل و ك ر ب ا ل ت ض س ر ب ت ا ل ق ل ال و ه إ ل ه ط ر د ا ل ل ذ د ك ا ل ا ل ا ع ل ا 1 و أ س ر ل ا ا ل د ا ب ة ل ل س ر شس ل ا ال ل ا و ا خ ل س ر ك ا ت ق أ ر ت ه و ه و ل ئ عت ل ى ق د ه ث عر أ ق ل ب ا لخ ل ص ة أ ل س ل ا ه ا سل ا و د و ع ل ا ه و أ خ ر ت ح ك اا و ب عت ل ل ا ا ل د ر ا ه ل ا ب د ك ل ا ث ر أ ص ل ب ه ك ا و ل ل أ ئ ل و ه و س ب ل ا عل ا ل ب ا ل و ز ر ر ل د ب اا ك ل ا عت ل ى ا ر أ ت ه وك ا ل ا ت ل سل ة إ ل ى ل ك ب ه هو ذ د ه عت ل ه ث خ ل ع خ ل ا ا ل ه د ا ل و ع ر ض ل ا ل ر و أ ع ل س ب ت ه و ع د ه ال ت ل وك ع ه و أ ر ل ا أ و ه إ ل ل ا ض ح س ر ل ا ك ق ث ود أ ب ل ه ه ت س ا ل ر و د عتا ش ى ل ل د ك ل غ ل ره و أ و ل ا د ه ل و س ب د ه و ه و و ح د ه عت ل ى س ر ر ق ط ع ل ق ه ة أ ك ا ت ل ل ل ا و ك ذ د س ل حل ش س و ل بك ت د أ ال ت ل ك أ خ و عت ل ه ل إ ت ق د ه ة ئ د ل ا ل ل ق ط ق عط ة د ع ل إ ل ى س و س ا ل ر س و ل ل ل ا ت ك ل ا و ل ل ل ء ت ه ل ا ئ د ه ة غ ص ر ه ة ل ل ث ة ث ع و ش ل ك ة و ش ل ل ا و ت ك ل د إ ك ل ت ال ل ه ا و ك ل ى ت ح د ذ ل ك ر س ه ل ا د أ ح د د ه إ ل ى أ ا ك ل ع ل ت ب د ه و ك ا ل ا و ل ال ت ل ك ء ت ه ل ا ئ د ه ة ث ل ق ط ق عط ة و ل ا و ل ل ال ت ل ك ا ل ذ د ع ه ل ء ت ه ل ا ئ د ه ة ث ع ا ك ل ا و ح د ا ل ذ د ب د ه ل ا ئ د ه ة و أ كا ل ا ك ل د ذ ل ك ح ت ى ق د إ ل ى ء ت ه ل ا ئ د ه ة و ك ا ل ا لش ل ل أ ح د و ل ا ت ل ا و ل ل ا ئ د ه ة غ ع ره ش إ ل إ د ر ع غ د ه ة ل ا ش ل ا رك ا ه ا و ح د ل ا ل ا ئ غ ل ا د عتا ب ش س ا ر ب ا سعل ل و ه ز ل ه ل ل ا ر ع ق عت ل ى ل ا ئ د ت ه إ ل ى ر ب ا ك ل ا و ح د ل ا ل ا ح ل ا ل ا أ ا ك ل ك ل ا. ب و ك ش س ر ب و ش س ر س و ه ا ل س ا ع ا. كا و ذ ا ل ب لد ا : ا لل طر د ا لد ع 1 ل 8 8

Bulghār Ibn Faḍlān proceeds to record everything that occurred on the road to Khwārazm and then on the road from Khwārazm to the realm of the Ṣaqālibah. It would take too long to quote it and comment on it. Ibn Faḍlān said: [39] We were a day and night s march from our goal. The king of the Ṣaqālibah dispatched his brothers, his sons, and the four kings under his control to welcome us with bread, meat, and millet. They formed our escort. When we were two farsakhs away, he came to meet us in person. On seeing us, he got down from his horse and prostrated himself abjectly, expressing thanks to God! He had some dirhams in his sleeve and showered them over us. He had yurts pitched for us, and we were lodged in them. We arrived on Sunday the twelfth of Muharram, 310 [May 12, 922]. We had been on the road for seventy days since leaving al-jurjāniyyah, the main city of Khwārazm. We remained in our yurts through Wednesday, while the kings and the elite of the realm gathered to listen to the reading of the letter. [40] On Thursday we unfurled the two standards we had brought with us, saddled the horse with the saddle meant for the king, dressed him in black, and placed a turban on his head. I brought out the letter of the caliph and read it while he stood. [41] I next read the letter of the vizier Ḥāmid ibn al-ʿabbās. The king continued to stand. He was a big man. His companions showered him with many dirhams. Then we produced the gifts and presented them and then presented a robe of honor to his wife, who was seated by his side. This is their customary practice. [42] Later he sent for us, and we attended him in his tent. The kings were on his right. He ordered us to sit on his left. His sons were seated in front of him. He sat alone, on a throne draped in Byzantine silk. He called for the table. It was carried in, laden with roasted meat. He picked up a knife, cut off a piece of meat, and ate it, then a second piece and a third, before anyone else. Then he cut off a piece and handed it to Sawsan, the envoy, who had a small table placed in front of him in order to receive it. Such is their custom. No one reaches for the food before the king hands him a portion and a table is provided for him to receive it the moment he receives it, he gets a table. He cut off a piece and handed it to the king on his right and he was given a table. He handed some meat to the second king and he was given a table. This continued until everyone present was given a table. Each of us ate from the table intended for his sole use. No one took anything from any other table. When the meal was finished, everyone took what remained on his own table back to his lodging. [43] When we had finished, he called for the honey drink they call sujū and drank, as did we. 3.3 3.4 9 9

5 3 6 3 7 3 ت ل ل ر ل ال ت ل ك ل ط ا و ر 1 ت ل ك ب ل ل ر ت ق ل ل ه ص أ ه ح ب ق ت ل ق د و ل ا ا ل ل ل ه ط ل ق ا خ ب ك ا د و ا ر هو د و ل ا ك أ ر ز ر أ خ ب ط ب ل ه د أ ح د س ل ا عت ل ى ال ل ب و إ ا ل ه ه و ال ت ل ك و ل ا ل ب ع د ك ص أ ه ح ا ل ل غ ا ره ا ل ش س ر ق ا و ل ع رب ى ك ل س ه أ ل ل عت ل ى ل ب ؤ ق د و ص ال و ت ق ل ل ل ز ر أ ل ل ا ص و ؤ ت د ر ل ل ه أ ر ا ل و ا ا ا ل ق إ ل ل و خ ل ص ت ك ع ع ر إ د ذ ا س ر ك د ب ح أ ل ا ا ر و أ ل ا أ ل ل ل ا أ ك ا ا ل ا ك ب أ إ ل ل ك بك أ س ذ ا س ت ك ا و ر ك د ز ور ل ل ق ل ت ع ع ر ؤ ال و ل ا ا س و ل ا أ ر ل ك ل ا ا ر و ك ا ب ه ا ل س ل ا ا ل ذ د ك ا ت ق د إ ل ى س ب أ ب ع د ا ل ه و ا ر ا و أ أ ت س ى ل س ه ق ل ت ل ع ل ل ق د ع ل ت ا س ع ع ب ع د ا ل ه أ ر ب ل ل ر و ل ى ل ب ع د ك ع ع ر ب ص أ ه ح أ ل خ ط ب ذ ل ك ل ا ل خ ط ب ب د. ؤ ال و ر أ ب ة ت ل ا ل ل ل ل ذ د ل ك أ أ و ث ره ة ا ك ل سح أ ا ل ل ا ب ئ عل ل ا د ه ل ب ت أ و ر ل ل ب ا ش ل س ب ل ع ة أ ق ا ل س ل ا ء و ق د ا ح ر ا ح ا ر ر ا ش د دا و س ع ت ب ق ت ل غ ت ب ل ده ر أ ع ت ل ة و ه ه ة ر ا ل و أ ص ا و ل عتا ا ههل او ل ة ا أ ص ا و ت ه إ و د إ د ت ل ك أ ح ر ث ت ل ا ل ل ا ر ق ر ب ر أ س إ د غ ع ش ل ب ا ل ا أ ح إ و د أ د ه أ ش ل ل ا ل ل ا س او ل د ا و ل أ خ ش لث ل ر ى ب ت س ل و أ ت خ ت ل ل إ و د ق عط ة أ ر ى ه ك ق س و ر ح ل ا سو و و أ ا ل ت ا ل ك ت ب ة ة ك ت ا ت ح ل ا ل ك ت ب عت ل ى ق ب ل ت ه ذ د ه ا ق ل عط ة عت ل ى ه د ه ذ ر ل ل ا أ ل ل و لس ا ل و د ا و ب لا أ ص ع بص و ك ا و س او ل د عتا ء و أ ه ل ا ل ب ل د ض ل ح ك و ل ض ق ب ل ل ا عت ل ى ر ع ا ت ل ع ل ا ه ذ د ه و أ عر ل ل ا ت ر ت ظ ل ى ا ق ل عط ة ت ح ل عت ل ى ا ق ل عط ة ت خ ت ل ل ح ص ل ل ع ة ث ك ل ا ك ر إ اا و ل ا ل ع ل ل ا ق أ د ا د ه ع أ ذ د ل ك ر ل ت ل ث ع ت بك ل ك س أ ل ل ا ال ت ل ك ع ق عط ة ا ل د ذ ل ك إ ل ى ر ل ا ل ا أ رك ا ل ا ع د ا و ه إ ة و ل ا ك ل ع ش ت ل و ت ق ا ه ل ر ك ا و ؤ ل ا ء و ؤ ا ل ح ل ا ا و ق و ول ه و ك ا ل ل ة. ل ذ ا ا و ا ك ل ك ا د د ه ث ك ل ا ب ق د ا ر ت ح د ل ت ح د ث ت ل ل ت ل ك أ ه ل ب ل غ د ا د ك ل ل ود خ ل ت أ ل ا و خ ل ا ط ك ا ل ا ب ة خ ل ا ا ل ق ر ر إ د ا ش عل ل ا ء إ د ل ل ا إ د ظ ت ح ل ل ص ل ع ة و ا إ ل ا ل ا عر ق ا ل ب لد ا : ب لط و ا ر. ع 1 ل 10 10

Bulghār [44] Before we turned up, the phrase Lord God, keep in piety the king Yilṭawār, king of the Bulghārs! was proclaimed from the minbar during the Friday oration. I told the king, God is the king, and He alone is to be accorded this title, especially from the minbar. Take your patron, the Commander of the Faithful. He has given instructions that the phrase, Lord God, keep in piety the imam Jaʿfar al-muqtadir bi-llāh, your humble servant, caliph and Commander of the Faithful! be proclaimed from his minbars east and west. He asked me, What proclamation can I rightly use for the Friday oration? and I said, Your name and that of your father. But my father was an unbeliever, he said, and I do not wish to have his name mentioned from the minbar. Indeed I do not wish to have even my own name mentioned, because it was given me by an unbeliever. What is the name of my patron, the Commander of the Faithful? Jaʿfar, I replied. Am I permitted to take his name? Yes. Then I take Jaʿfar as my name, and ʿAbdallāh as the name of my father. This was conveyed to the preacher. The proclamation during the Friday oration became, Lord God, keep in piety Your bondsman Jaʿfar ibn ʿAbd Allāh, the emir of Bulghārs, whose patron is the Commander of the Faithful! Ibn Faḍlān said: [48] I lost count of the number of marvels I witnessed in his realm. For example, on our first night in his territory, an hour before sunset, I saw the horizon turn a bright red. The air was filled with an uproar and loud voices. I looked up and was surprised to see fiery-red clouds nearby. The voices and the uproar came from the clouds, where there were shapes that looked like soldiers and horses. These shapes brandished bows, spears, and swords. I could form a clear image of them in my mind. Then another group, similar to the first, appeared. I could make out men, animals, and weapons. This second group charged the first, as one squadron attacks another. We were scared and began to pray to God and entreat Him. The locals were astonished at our reaction and laughed at us. Ibn Faḍlān said: We watched as one unit charged the other, engaged in combat for an hour, and then separated. This lasted for a part of the night, then they disappeared. We asked the king about this, and he told us that his forebears used to say, These are two groups of jinn, believers and unbelievers, who do battle every evening. This spectacle had occurred every night for as long as they could remember. [49] Ibn Faḍlān said: I went into my yurt with the king s tailor, a man from Baghdad. We were chatting but did not chat for long less than half an hour, I reckon. We were waiting for the call to prayer at nightfall. When we heard it, 3.5 3.6 3.7 11 11

8 3 ت ل ل ر ق ل ت ش ع ل ا ء ا ل ا أ خ ره ة ل ل ل لص ل ر ا ل ش ء إ د ت ل ل أ د إو ت ق ل ل ل ر ع و ق د لط ا ل د ا ل ذ ا آ ا ل ط و ل ل ق ا أ ق ص ر ه د و ق د أ خ ت و د ك ا ك ت ا ر ى ل ت ل ل ل غ ت ق ل ل ل ع ال ع ر ب ل ع ل ا إ ل ا ا صل و ذ د ل ك أ ب ل ت ل خ و ل أ و ت ه لص ا ه ة ل ا ا ل ا ل ه ذ د ش ه ر ح ذ ا أ ر ود ك ل ا ل و ر أ ت ا ل ل ر ك ض ق ا غ ل د ه و ل ا آ ل ل أ ت غ ث ل ص ل ا ل ق د ر عت ل ى ا ل ل ا ر و ك ق ت ال ع رب ل ت ل ل ا ل ط و ل ل ت ل ث ع د ه د ه ة ا سل ة و ق ص ر ا ل ه ل ط و ل د ا و د أ إ ع د ه ط و ل ا ا ع د دا س ر ا ب ا إ ل ل ا ل ك ا و ك ت ل أر و ق ص ر ا ل ل ر ل ل ا ك ا ل ا ت ا ل ل ل ة ا ل ش ل ك ة ل س ب غ ل ا ل غ ب ق ت ل ال ع ر ب ق ا ل ا أ ح ر ا ل ذ د ل ش ا د إ و ة ق ل ت ص ع ر اا ا و ك ا خ ل س ع ة ش س ر ك ل و ق ت أ ل ظ ل ا ل ا و ل قه ر ق ت ل و ه ة هس ا ل ر ت ل ا ل ر ت ل ه أ ك ا ث ر ع ل ت ل ا ل ظ ل ة ل ع ر ل ت ل ق ل د إ و ة بكت ب ا ل ق ه ر ل ل و ح د ث ال ت ل ك أ ص غ ر ل ا لط ل ع ا ع ل لط أر ل ء ا ل س ل ا ء ل ع ة ث إ ل ل ا ل ل ع ة ق ل ت ل ع د ه أ ق ت ل و س و ا ل هل ل ل و ق ر ه أ ش ة ث ا ل ث ره ة س د ه ب ل و ر ا ء ب ش ء ا ك ل ل ا أ ض ا و ل ل ل و ا ر ش ء ه ا ش ل س ح ر ا ك ل ع و ر أ ت ا ل ب ل د ع د ط ل و د ذ ل ك ح ت ى ل غ ع ل ا ب ة ك ا ر ى ل ا ر ل ا ل ح ره ك ة ا ل أ ل ت ل لط ا ش ل س ك ا ح ع ل ه ل إ ا إ ل ا ظ ك ر ل ت ل ط و ل ا ل ل ر و عتا د ل ا ا ش ل ل ء عتا د ا ل ك ا د إ ه ت ك ت ك ب د ا ل س ل ا ء و عر أ ه ل ا ل ب ل د أ ب و ه أق ت ل ت ت ل ب ل ا إ ل ى ل ه ر ل ل ل ه إ ر ل خ ل ت ل ح ت ى أ ا ل ر ت ل ل ا ق ص ر ا ل ا ل ل ر ح ت ى ب ا ك ا ت ل ل ع ا ل ك ا و ك ا عل ت ة إ ل ى و ك ق ت ط ل و ل ا ك غ ب ل ه إ ل ى ر خ س و ك ق ت ا ل ل ة ر ت ل ط بص ق ا ل س ل ا ء. و رك ا ة خ ص ب س ة ب ت أ ت عت ل ه ق و ول ب لك د ا و ب ر ك ا و ب ل ع ا و ء ا ل كت ه ت ك أ و ر ا ش ل ر ل ل ت ص عت ل ه ع ش س ره ة ا ت ع د ه ك ا ث ره ة ح ت ى أ ا غ ل ص و لس ا ة و ر أ ت ا ل ح ل ا ت أ ك ا ت ل ه ل ا أ خ س ر ض ش د د ا حل و ض ة د ت ح و هل ت إ د ل ه ل و أ ك ا ث ر و ل ا ق ت ل و ل ل و ل ا و أ ع بر ل ش ل د ق و ر أ ت ه غ ع ل ل ت وك ر ا ب ث ر ا أ ك ه د ل ب س ل و س و ا ر ا ل ط ا ل ط و ل و ل ق ه أ ر د ل ا ه و ع ر ش ا ر ل ا أ د ر ت هل سل ش ث ل ل ل ل و ر أ ر ت ل ع د و إ ل ى و ض ص ع ه أ ا ا ل و ر ق و ر و ؤ سو ه ك ر ا و ؤ و س ا خ ل ت ل ل ه خ و ص ع د ل ق إ ل ب ذ د ل ك ا ك ش ص ق ر إ ل ه ت ح ت ه إ ل ا ء و ع ل و ك ث ق بص و ه ش ة ل ع ر و ه ر ه ل ق ه ذ د ه ا ل ر ا خ ل ر و أ ك ا ث ر أ ك ا ت ل ه ك ت ا ت س ك ر ه أ س ك ره ش س ب ل أ ك ا ث ر ا إ ل ا و ل إ سعل ا ب ط أ ا ء ل 12 12

Bulghār we went outside the yurt, and noticed that the morning sun had already risen. So I said to the muezzin, Which prayer did you call? The daybreak prayer. And what about the last call, the night call? We perform that along with the sunset prayer. So I said, And what of the night? The nights are as short as you have observed. They have been even shorter but now they have started to grow long. He said that he had not slept for a month, afraid he would miss the morning prayer. You can put a cooking pot on the fire at the time of the sunset prayer, and by the time you have performed the morning prayer, the pot will not have started to boil. Ibn Faḍlān said: Daylight was very long. I observed that, for part of the year, the days were long and the nights short. Later on I observed the nights grow long and the days short. [50] On our second night, I sat down outside and could make out only a few constellations, I think maybe no more than fifteen. I noticed that the red glow that precedes sunset did not disappear night was hardly dark at all. In fact you could identify another person at more than a bow-shot away. Ibn Faḍlān said: The moon would rise in one part of the sky for an hour, then dawn would break, and the moon would set. The king told me that a tribe called the Wīsū lived three months from his territory, where night lasted less than an hour. Ibn Faḍlān said: I noticed that at sunrise the whole country, the ground, the mountains, anything you cared to look at, grew red. The sun rose like a giant cloud. The red persisted until the sun was at its zenith. The inhabitants of Bulghār informed me, In winter, night is as long as day is now and day is as short as night. If we set out at sunrise for a place called Itil less than a farsakh away, we will not get there before nightfall, when all the constellations have risen and cover the sky. [51] They consider the howling of a dog to be very auspicious, I observed. They say that a year of fertility, auspiciousness, and peace approaches. Snakes, I noticed, are so numerous that ten, maybe even more, could be coiled around just one branch of a tree. The Bulghārs do not kill them, and the snakes do them no harm. [53] The apples are dark. In fact, they are extremely dark and more acidic than wine vinegar. The female slaves eat them and get fat. Hazel trees grow in abundance. I saw hazel woods everywhere. One wood can measure forty by forty farsakhs. There is another tree that grows there, but I don t know what it is. It is extremely tall, has a leafless trunk, and tops like the tops of palm trees, with slender fronds, but bunched together. The locals know where to make a hole in the trunk. They place a container underneath it. Sap, sweeter than honey, flows from the hole. If someone drinks too much sap, he gets as 3.8 13 13

ت ل ل ر ذ د ه ش إ ل أ خ ع ز رر ا ك ل خ ت ل عت ل ى أ ا حل ط ة ا و ش ل ع ر ك ا ث ر ب ل ا د ه و ل ا حل س و و ر ل ا ل ة ا ك ل ب ت ل د ث و ر إ و د أ ر س ر ل ه و ؤ د و إ ه ل أ ر غ ع ق ح ه ك ل ت ل ل ك ل س ه ل س ا ل ا أ د ل ش ء ه د س ع ل ة و ح ص ل ا ل ه هع ض ا ل ب ل دا ل ل ل ر ه ة غ ت ك ا ع ل ب ى عت ل ه ل ا ا و ل ذ د ل ك ر ز ر وك ا ت ل ك ا ه و ه ل ا ر ت ا و ل ش ر ق ه ل غ ع رد ه ا ل س ت ك إ ب ا و ح د ه ب غ ل ر غ ع ل ا و ل ا أ ح د ع ه إ د ا ل ر ب ا ال ت ل ك رك رك د إ س ا ل ق ل ا س و ل ب ذ د ق ل س و ت ه ع ر أ س ه و ع ل ل ت ح ت إ ب ل ط ه إ د ل و ر ز ه ا ل و أ خ ل ك ب ص ق أ ح د إ ل ا سل و ق ح ت ى ا ك ل د خ ت ل عت ل ى ال ت ل ك غ ص ر و ب ك ا ر د ل ذ ك و ك ا و ق ر و ؤ هسو رد ا و ق ل ا هس ث لع و ل ل ت ح ت آ ل هط ذ د و ق ل ا س ه ه عت ل ه ظ أ خ ق ل ر أ و ل ا د ه إ و خ و ت ه ل ع ة ع ا ك ل ل س ل و س و ل ل ه ق و و ح ت ى أ ر ث و ل س و هسو و ؤ ر ب ه ل إ و و ؤ د ه ب ر ق ل س و ت ه و ل ا ظ ل ط ه ر ل ح ت ى خ ر خ ل س ل رك ا ل ا و ل ا ا ب د ه إ ل ب ل س ل ع د ذ د ل ك. 9 3 10 3 ه ق أ ح د ه ل ب عر و ا و صل ا و ع ق ب ل ا د ه ك ا ث ره ة د ا إ و د و ق ع ت ا ل ل ع ق ة د ا ر ض ص غ ص ب ض و عت ل ه إ و د ر أ ا و ر ل ا ل ه و ت رك ا و ه ح ت ى ك ت ل ه ا ر ل ا و ق و ل و ه د و ع ذ د وه و لع ا و ع ص ق ه ب ح ل ا خ خ د ر ك ب ل ا أ ه أ ح ر ك ا ة و ع ر ة ل ل ا أ ش ل ء ل ل ا و ه د ح ق أ أ ح د ه ا ل بص و ل ل ل ل ا ا و س ر و ط ر ق و ر ا د إ و د ك ا ش ة ح ت ى ع ك ص ق ط ر ه ه و و ق عت ل ه لس ا ح ه و ع ل ه ذ د ا و لس ا ح ه و ح ع ص ل ا ع ه و ح ط ع و عت ل ه لس ا ح ه ا ك ت ه بص و ه و أ خ ز ل ا ل ر ل ل ا و ل ل ء ا ل ه ر ص غ ت س ل و ح ص ل ع ر ه و ر ا ح ة ل ك ص ع ض ر ص ا و ل ه هو ذ د ه س ت ه ل ل ا ئ ك ل ا ك ا ز ل ا ه ر و ب س ب ا ل و ه و ب و ر ا ل و ب ل ض ع ه ض ل ع ل ت ر ب ت ا س ل ب ت ه إ ل ى أ س ر ك ق ق ط ع ا و ل ل ل ل و أ س ك ك و ش د ا و د ه و ر ل ه إ بر ض ا و ل ه بع ر ل ل ا س ك ا ل ا ل و ل ق د ا ت ه د ت ش ة ق ر ه ق عط ة ه و ل عت ل ى د ذ ل ك ع ل و ل ل ر إ ه ث ل ع ل ق ا ك ل خ ذ د ه و ك ا ك ت ا ق ر ل ل ا ت ل و ق و ك ل ذ د ل ى إ و ى س ا ا ت ل ة ح ل س ل ا ل ل ر ل ا ء ل ل ت ر ا ت ت س أ. ر ا ت ل و ق أ خ ل ر أ ق ت ص ر ل ا عت ل ه د. هل و 14 14

Bulghār intoxicated as he would from drinking wine. [54] Their diet consists chiefly of millet and horse meat, though wheat and barley are plentiful. Crop-growers keep what they grow for themselves. The king has no right over the crops, but every year they pay him one ox skin per household. When he orders a raid on a given territory he takes a share of the booty they bring back. [55] They do not use olive oil, sesame oil, or any other vegetable oil. They use fish oil instead. This is why they are so greasy. [56] They wear peaked caps. The king rides out alone, unaccompanied by his men or anyone else. If he passes through the market, everyone stands, removes his cap from his head and places it under his arm. When the king has passed, they put their caps back on. The same is true of those who are given an audience with the king, the great and the lowly even his sons and his brothers. The moment they are in his presence, they remove their caps and place them under their arms. Then they bow their heads, sit down, and stand up again until he commands them to be seated. Those who sit in his presence, do so in a kneeling position. They keep their hats under their arms until they have left. Then they put them back on again. [59] I observed more lightning there than anywhere else. They do not 3.9 approach a household struck by lightning but let it be with all of its contents, people, and possessions everything in fact until time destroys it. They say, This household has incurred divine wrath. [61] If they notice that someone is clever and able, they say, This man is fit for the service of our lord. They take hold of him, place a rope around his neck, and hang him from a tree until he decomposes. [62] If one of them urinates on a march while still in full armor, everything he has with him, including his weapons, is removed as plunder. But they leave him alone if he undoes his weapons and puts them aside while urinating. This is one of their customs. [63] Men and women wash naked together in the river without covering themselves, and yet under no circumstance do they commit adultery. When they catch an adulterer, they set four rods in the ground and tie his hands and his feet to them, no matter who he may be. Then they take an axe, and cut him up, from neck to thigh. They treat the woman in the same manner. They hang the pieces from a tree. Ibn Faḍlān said: I spared no effort to exhort the women to cover themselves when swimming in the presence of men, but that proved impossible. They kill a thief in the same way they do an adulterer. Aḥmad ibn Faḍlān gives many more items of information about the Bulghār 3.10 but we have confined ourselves to this. 15 15

1 4 2 4 خ ز ر ر ت در إ ل ى ا صل ل ب ل ة ر ل ل ة ل ه ض ل ا ر س و ل ال ق ب أ ح د ل ل و... ش ل ا ه ده بك ت ل ك ا ب ل ل ا د ل ل د ذ ك ر ا ل ل ا ر إ ل ى ا ل رر إ و ت ت ل ا س ا ل ه ر ا ل ذ د ق ص ة ت س ى إ ت ت ل ب ا س إ ق ل ا ل رر ق ط ع ل ق عط ة عت ل ى ا س ال ت ل ك ة ل ا ا س د ك ة و إ ل ا ت ت ل إ و ت ت ل د ك ة ا و ل رر و ب ل ل ر ا ل ر و س ه ل ا ا غ ل ع ر ب ق عط ة عت ل ى سر ش ق ه ا و ل ت ل ك س ك ه د ا ل ه ر ال س ى إ ت ت ل و ه ب أ ك ا ر ه ل ا و ر عغ ب ب عر ك ة ق د ا ر ل ا ل ط و ل ت ل ك و س ى أ ل ل ل ك هو ذ د ه ا ق ل عط ة ا ل غ ه ل ب ل ل ك ل ت ال ى س و ش ء ا ل بص و د إ ل ل خ ا ل ت رك ا ا ب ل ل ا ء وب أ س ه ش ت ر ه أ ا و ح ط ب ل ل س ور إ ل خ س ح و ر ه ل ل إ ل ل لخ ق ك ا ث ر ال س ل أ س ا و ق و ح ل ا ل ا ت و س ر ب ط و هل ا ل ه ر ل ع د ش ط ق ص ر ال ت ل ك ب ث س د ا و ح و ث ل ا هل و س ل ا ل آ ر د و عت ل ى ع ش س ره ة ر ه آ غ ع ره و ل ا ك ال ت ل ك أ ب ر ل ل ا آ غ ع ر آ ر و ل س ل ا أ ح د بك ل ا ء ق ص ر ه و ظ ط ه ر ه ذ ده ال د ك ة خ ل ا ل ص ح ا ر ء عت ل ى أ ة ب أ ا و ب أ ح د ل ل ا ل ه ر و آ ر ل ع ل ب ر ر س و ل ا د ل ه و ل ه ا ل ل ش ة ح و بر ل ع أ ة آ ل ا ر ت ل ا و ل رر ولس ل ه و د و ل ل إ هك و ت ل ه ث و أ ك ا ر ل ه و د عت ل ى أ ال ت ل ك ه ل ع ر ق ه ل ا ك ا ا ل و أ ق ت ل ا ل ا أ و ش ب ع د ه ة ه و ل ل ر ى و أ خ ل ا ق أ ه ل ه ا ق أ خ ل ى عت ل ل ل ب ل ا و د و ل ه ت ه ص ل ك و ل ت ال أ ا ال س ل و ا و ل ل ر ى إ ل ل ل ة ل ل س ل ه عت ل ى ر س و و أ ح ل ص ر ع ظ كص ا د ع د ب ض ل ع ل ه ك ص ض ع ا ل ا أ و ش ل س ر ت ل أ ق ال ت ل ك ا ث ك ل ا ع ش س ر أ ل ر ت ل إ د ل ا ت ه د ه ة ش ل ه و د ا و ل ل ر ى و ر ا و ش ء ر ر س ر ا ا ر ة د ا ئ ره ة إ ل ت س هل غ ع ره ل ه ل ا ك ق ص ه ذ د ه ا ل ع د ه ة أ ب د ا و ل ل ا ع و ل ه و أ أ ر ظ ع ب ه ح ب ر أ و ر ل ل ا هل ك ا د إ ة ص ع ده ك ه ة ا د ال ه ل إ ل ل ص ا ك ل ت ا ت عت ل ى ر س و هل ل ا أ د و ع ش س ور ا ل ل ر ا ر ل ب أ ا و ب أ ا و ل لص ا ت ا ل رر ا ح ل ل ا ك ل ص و ح ا ص ل ا و ل ل ل ال ه أ و ل ئ عت ل ى بو ح ر و ل ه ر و هل ق ر ط ل ه و د ا و ل ل ر ى ا ا ل ك ل ح ا ة عس ت ك ل ل ل ت ك و ل ر ذ د غ ع و ا ر ب س ش إ ل ه ط ل و ل ه و ؤ ل ا ء و ل ا ل ص ل أ ه ل ض ل ل ل ا س ح ك و ة ق ض ى ع ر د إ ل و أ ه ل ا ل ا أ و ش ا و ل س ل 16 16

Khazar 7... Aḥmad ibn Faḍlān was the envoy of al-muqtadir bi-llāh to the king of the Ṣaqālibah. In an epistle in which he gave an account of all his experiences in these regions he said: Khazar is the name of a clime containing a fortified town called Itil. Itil is the name of the river that flows to Khazar from al-rūs and Bulghār. Itil is a city. Khazar is the name of the kingdom, not the name of a city. Itil has two parts. One part, the bigger of the two, is on the west bank of the Itil. The other is on the east. The king, called yilik and also bāk in their tongue, lives on the west bank. The western part of the city stretches for about a farsakh and is surrounded by a wall. The wall has a flat top for patrols. They use felt tents for buildings, apart from a few clay structures. They have markets and baths. Many Muslims live there more than ten thousand, it is said and there are around thirty mosques. The king s palace, made of brick, is far from the river bank. This is their only brick building as the king will permit no one else to build with brick. The wall has four gates, one by the river, another by the steppe behind the city. The king is a Jew and, it is said, boasts a retinue of four thousand men. The Khazar population is Muslim and Christian with a number of idolaters. The Jews are the minority sect, though the king is a Jew. Muslims and Christians are the majority. The king and his elite are Jews. In their customs and practices, they live predominantly as the idolaters do each bows down before the other in order to demonstrate reverence. The various customs of the Muslims, Jews, and Christians determine the rules that govern their township. The king s army is made up of twelve thousand men. This number never decreases: a dead man is replaced immediately. They have no regular stipend, apart from a pittance that they receive, to cover long periods when they go to war or are mustered to deal with an emergency. The various kinds of wealth acquired by the Khazars derive from tolls and their custom of tithing the goods that arrive by road, river, and sea. They also impose a duty on the inhabitants of the neighboring trading emporia and surrounding areas. This duty can take any form, including food and drink and other requirements. The king has nine judges: Jews, Christians, Muslims, and idolaters. They rule on cases that need deciding, and they, not the litigants, communicate with the king. When the court is in session, the judges send their inquiries to the king via a 4.1 4.2 17 17

3 4 4 4 ر ر ا ء ا ل ح ك ل ا و ب ا ل ص ل إ ل ه ه و ؤ ل ل إ و ئ إ ل ى ا ل ت ل ك س ه ا ل ح و ا ال ت ل ك و ا ق ل ل ء س ر ا ر لس و ه ل ا و ض ص و ه. ر ه أ و ب و ل ا ء ا ل ح ك ل ا ه ؤ عت ل ه ا ل ا أ ور ك ه و إ ل ه و رد ر ر و ا صل إ ل ى ا ل س ر ر ع خ ت ش ر ة هع ر ر س أ ا ق ل و ل س هل ذ د ه ال د ك ة ر ى إ بو ل ض ع ه إ ل ى ر ه ل ا ل ى إ ه ض ل ع أ د رك ب د إ و ه ع و س ل ر ر ع و ح و ا ع ش س ر ر و ل س ت ك و ل ا ع د ا ذ د ل ك ل ا أ ز ا ا ر ر ه و ت ل ق ى عت ل ل ل ب ل ا و ر ه ل ا و ل ت ل ع ح ت ل و ه عت ل ى ا ا صل ل ر ى و ب ل ل ر وك و ا ل ب ة ا و ل ص ا ل ش س ر ق د ك ة ا ل ر و س ل ه د ع هد ح ل إ و ا ل ت لا ر ا و ل س ل و اول ل ر و ل ل ا ل رر غ ع ر ل ل ا ل ت رك ا و ل ل ر س ة ا ل رر ه ظ ع ا ل ه س و د ا ش ل ع ور و ه ا ل ا أ ت ا ر ك و ا ل ا أ ا و ل رر ل ب ا ش س ه و ق و ل ا ش ل ا ر ك ا ه ل ل ر ه ل أ ل ل س ر و ش ل د ه ة ا ل س ر ه ة إ ل ى ا سل او د ك ا ض ه س ر ب ر ر و ق ا ر ل ص س و ص ق ر ق ص ق ا ل رر ح ل ت ا ل ا و ل ح س او ل ذ د ع ل ه ر و ا بك ض صو د ل ه ا ص ل ه و د ا ا ل أ ع ض ص ك ه ض ل ع ل ب ق ل ع كص أ و ل ا د ه ا و س ر ت ت ر و س ذ د ل ا ل ه أ ه ل ا ل ا أ و ش و و ب ل د ا ل رر ل ا ب ل ع ل ث ت ل ال س ل ه ض ل ع ل ب ق ل د ك ص و ب ت ح ر ا س ر ت ه ل ا و ل ل ر ى إ ل ه ث ت ل ا ل د ق ص ق ا و ل ع س ل ا ه و ب ل و إ ل ا ر ت ه إ ل ع ش ء و ا ك ل ل ه إ ل ى ا ب ل ل ا د ب او ل ا أ و ل ر. و ش ل ا و ل ر ع ا ز ل و ل ل أ ة أ ش ه ر ت ر ع بر ل ا ك ل ا ه ل ا ظ ل ط ه ر إ ل ل ل إ و أ ل ا ت ل ك ا ل رر ل س ه و س و س ل و د ب ر أ ر ش ب ه و ه و ا ل ذ د ق و د ا ل ل ل ت ه ص لخ ل ر و ل ل ب ل ك ل ل ا ل ه و و و ل ه ت ذ د ع ال ت ل وك ا ل ذ د ل ل ق بص و ه و د خ ت ل ا ك ل ظ ل ط ه ر و ل ع ر ال ت ل ك ة و ق و ب ل ل و د ه ب و ك ا ل ل ة و ل ا د خ ت ل عت ل ه إ ل ل ت ا و ل س ك إ ل ا خ ا أ ك ا ر ت ص ا و ض ص ل ظ ل ط ه ر ا ا ل ب ل ل إ ل ى د ه ذ د ل ك ا ل ح ط ب إ د ر ع غ ا ل و ق و د ل س ع ا ل ت ل ك ب د ق و أ ه ل ت ع ل س د إ ب ط ح و لخ ه د أ ل ل ر ت ل ل ل ل ل د ر ل ل ل ه ك ا و لخ ه ر ت ل ه ره ع ر س ى عت ل و ل ا د خ ت ل عت ل ه أ ح د ل س ل ل ل ا س و ل ا ه لك ل ا أ ر ا ا أ ك س ال ت ل ك ا ل ب ر و ر ل ه ل و ش ع ل ل ت ه ص خ ل ة عت ل ى ك ت ل ر ال ب و ت د ت ل و عل ق ا و ق د عل ا و ل ح ل ا ت ا ذ ا ل ا ا و ل و ل ل ر د ك غ ع ر 18 18

Khazar representative. This is how they make contact with him. He delivers his verdict and they implement it. There are no villages in the countryside around the city. The fields produce their crops without being regularly tended. In the summer they travel about twenty farsakhs out into the fields and work the land. They harvest the crops when the crops reach the river and the steppes and transport them by cart and boat. Their staples are rice and fish and other foodstuffs exported to them from al-rūs, Bulghār, and Kūyābah. The eastern half of the Khazar city is inhabited largely by merchants and Muslims. This is where trading takes place. The language of the Khazars is not similar to Turkic and Persian. It is unique among spoken languages. The Khazars do not resemble the Turks. They have black hair and are of two kinds. One kind, called the Qarākhazar,9 is brown. They get their name from their deep brown, almost black, coloration and look like Indians. The other kind is fair-skinned, beautiful, and comely. Slavery is practiced among the Khazars, but only the idolaters engage in it, as they permit the buying and selling of their children and enslaving one another. It is contrary to the religious beliefs of the Jews and the Christians, as it is of the Muslims, to enslave a co-religionist. No product is exported from the Khazar realm. Anything acquired there (flour, honey, wax, silk, or skins, for example) is imported. [90a] The title of the king of the Khazars is khāqān. He only appears in public once every four months, at a distance. He is called the Great Khāqān. His deputy is called Khāqān Bih, who leads and commands the army, manages and conducts the affairs of the kingdom, appears in public and leads the raids. The neighboring kings obey him. He enters the presence of the Great Khāqān every day, abasing himself in a show of humility and meekness. He must enter his presence barefoot, with a piece of firewood in his hand. When he greets him, he lights the firewood in front of him, and then sits on the couch with the king at his right hand. He is represented by a man called Kundur Khāqān, who in turn is represented by a man called Jāwashīghar. According to custom, the Great Khāqān does not sit before the people or speak to them. Only those functionaries we have mentioned are admitted into his presence. Executive power, the meting out of punishment, and the general management of the kingdom are the responsibility of the deputy, Khāqān Bih. [91] It is the custom that, when the Great Khāqān dies, a large dwelling is constructed for him. It houses twenty tents, in each of which a grave is dug. Stones are pound to a 4.3 4.4 19 19

5 4 ر ر و ع ح ر ل ه ا ك ل ل ل ع ش س ر و ب ا أ ك ا ر إ د ل ا ت أ ب ى ل ه د ا ر ب ك ا ره ة س ال ت ل ك ا ل ب ب ه و ر ق ذ د ل ك و ة ص وره ل ا ط ر ح و ت ل ه ر ث ت ل ا ل ح ك ل و ت عر ش ت ل ص ا ل حل ره ة ح ت ى ب ر و ت ك س ر ب ت ل ق ق ذ د ل ك ا ل ه ر و ق و ل و ح ت ى ل ا ب ر و و ع ل و ا ل ق ر ت ح ت ا ل د ا ر ا و ل ه ر ل ه ر ب ك ا ر و ض سر ب ت أ ع ل ا ق ا ل ذ د د د إ و ا و ه ا ل و ا د ود ل و ل ا إ ل و ل ل ش ه ل إ ل ل ص ب ره ا ل ة و ق و ل و ق د د خ ت ل ا ل ة و ت و س ى ق ب ره ت ل ك ا ب ل د ص و ه ح ت ى ل ا د ر ى أ ق س ت ل ك ا ل رر أ ك و ل ه خ ح س ل ل ذ د ب ه و ر ال س و ل ك د ل ل و ت ك ا ت ل ل ل ا ب ش عر و ت ذ د ل ط و عتا أ و ا بك ة ت ل ك ال ت ل وك ا ل ذ د ل د و ه أ خ إ ا ك ل ا ر إ ه ه و ع ش س ر و ا ر ه ده ة ح ل ت ا ل و ا ك ل او ح ة ا ق ئ ل ا ت و ل ا ه إ ل ا ر ش ه س ا ل س ا ر ر ل ع و ا ر ل و ل ه ا ل ك ر ا ق ب ة ض س ب ر و ل ك ل و ح و ل ا ك ل ل ل ق ب ة غ ش ل ه ل ل ل ع ر د ق ص ر ا ر ر ل س ا و ر ا ر ئ ل ح ا ص ا و ل ح ب أ أ ل ط ب أ ض ل ع ل ه ب ل ع ث إ ل ى ا لل د ا ل ذ د ر ا د د إ ل ب ح ا و ح د ه ة ه ل د ب ق ب ة ال ت ل ك إ د ا لل د عت ل ى ل ش ه و ق ا ر ل ل ع ى ت ص ر ح ل ب ا ل ب ل ل أ س ر ع ح ب ا ه د ال ت ل ك رك د إ و د ه ة ح ا و ة حل ظ ك ل ذ د ل ع د ب ك ل ت ر ا و ل ر ص ا و ل ل بك د ذ د و ئ ط ل أ خ ع ت ه ب ا ت ل ل ا ا ر ه أ ح د ر ه وب ال ا و ك ك و ب ش ل ر ك وب ا ه و ب ا ل ئ را ل ص و ر رك ب ا ل ك أ س ة إ د بر ل وع هك ت ل ه ة و د ز ره ع ل د ا ل ه ل ا ر ر أ س ه ح ت ى و ا ر خ ل و ه ه إ ل و ل ا ا و ح د ا ق ت ل ت ه ا ل ر ع ة و ل ص ت ه و ل ل ا و ه د ق د ق ص ع ق ل ه ا و ض ل ط ر ب ر أ ه ل و ز ر ل ا ك ل ك ص ر إ ل ه ل ا ل د ب ر ب و ه و ل ب ب ا س ب إ ا ل ه ر ز ت ق ت ت ل ة ل ت و ر إ و د ب ل ع ث س ل ا د ه و ب ه ه ل ء ه و أ و ض ض ه و أ ح س ر ت ه ى ت ا ل ه ر ز ا و أ ح س ر ا و د و خ ل ص ل ا ا ق ل ل أ ل ا ور ب ود ور ه و لس ا ح ه و ل ع ه د ذ ل ك د ا و ب ل ه ظ و ك ا ه ك ر و ه و ب ح س ر ض ت ل ه ل غ ر لع ه ل ا ش ر و ر ب ا ل ب أ ع ل ا ق ه ه ا ق عت ل ل و ر ب ب لصو ه ت ق ط ع ه د ح ا و ا ك ل ط ع ق ل س ة. إ ل ه إ د أ ح س ل ه ر إ ت ت ل و ه ل ك ل أ ح د ا ل ل ك ب ال س ل و ة عت ل ى ع ة ظ ك د رر ل ك ا ل ت و ل ر ع غ ل ل ا ال ت ل ك ل ل ل ه ر ت ل خ ال ت ل ك و أ ص ل ب ه و عت ل ى ال س ل ب ا ل ا آ ر ل ل ا و ت ا ت ر د و ده ة ا ل ل ر ل ه إ ب ل د ا ل رر و ال خ ت ل ال ق ل س و أ ح ل ال س ل و ه و ه ذ د ه ه غ ع ره و ل ل س ل ب ض ق ا ل و ه ظ أ و ر ا غ ل ل ا ال ل س ل ا ك ر إ ل ى ذ د ل ك 20 20

Khazar kohl-like powder and spread on the ground. Lime is thrown on top. A second river flows under both the dwelling and the river a fast, powerful river. They construct the grave above the river, saying, This way no devil, man, worm, or vermin can reach him! Those who bury him in his grave are beheaded, so no one knows which tent houses his grave. His grave is called the Garden, and they say, He has entered the Garden. All of the tents are carpeted with silk woven with gold. [92] It is the custom of the king of the Khazars to possess twenty-five women, daughters of the neighboring kings, taken either with their compliance or by force. He has sixty concubines, slaves beautiful beyond compare. The freeborn women and the concubines live in a separate palace. Each has a chamber with a vault of teak paneling and surrounded by a pavilion. Each concubine is served by a eunuch as her chamberlain. When the king wants to have intercourse, he sends for the eunuch who places the woman in the king s bed in the blink of an eye. The eunuch stands by the door of the king s yurt. When the king is done with her, the eunuch takes her by the hand and departs. He does not leave her there for one minute longer. [93] When this great king goes out riding, the entire army rides with him. There is a mile between him and his retinue. When his subjects see him, they lie down on their faces and remain prostrate before him. They do not lift their heads until he has passed. [94] His kingship lasts forty years. When it is just one day past forty he is put to death by his subjects, including the elite, who say, His mind is defective and his judgment is impaired. [95] No squadron he dispatches will turn back or retreat, no matter what. Those who come back after a defeat are killed. If his generals and the deputy are defeated, he has them brought into his presence, along with their women and children, and gives the women and children to another man before their very eyes. He does the same with their horses, belongings, weapons, and residences. Sometimes he cuts them in two and gibbets them. Sometimes he hangs them by the neck from a tree. Sometimes he makes them stable-hands if he means to be kind to them, that is. [96] The king of the Khazars has a mighty city on both banks of the Itil. The Muslims are on one bank, the king and his retinue on the other. One of the king s men, a Muslim whose title is Khaz, is in charge of the Muslims. The legal rulings of all the Muslims, both those who reside in the realm of the Khazars and those who go there regularly to trade, are referred to this Muslim retainer. No one else looks into their affairs or judges among them. [97] The Muslims 4.5 21 21

ع ل ص ل و ال د ك ة س د ل و ر ر ل ة ل ا ره ة عتا ه أ ع لا ا ل و ه ض و ح س ر و ه ا لصل ا ه ة ده ا و ا ل ك س ة ا ل ت ة ۳١٠ أ ال س ل ل أ ل ا أ ه د ت و ق ت ت ل إو ال د و و ل ل ل و ل ا أ ت ص ل ب ت ل ك ا ل رر س ل ل ا ا ل د و ع د ه ة إو أ ر ل ل ل ا ره ة و ك ا ل ا ت د ا ر ا ل ل ب ل ه و د ك ا ت ل ه هك و ت ل رر ل ا و د س ال ت ل ه د ت ا ه د لس ا ك ا س ة إ ل ك ب ص ى ق ب ل ا د ا إ ل ا ل ل ع بص و د ة و د ك ص و ل ه ل ل ل ع ة و ل ب ط ه ت ه ع ل ه ل و ر ا ك ل ل ا ا صل ل ب ل ة و ك ا و ه ذ د ب ق د و ه ا ل رر. و ا و ل و إ ل ى أ ل ب ض ل ع ل ه 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 ز خ و ا ر ر ا ض ل ب أ ح د س ل ق أ ت ا ل ر ل ل ة ا ل ت ك ا... و ر ل ل ه إ ل ى ت ل ك ا ل ص ت د ر ل ل ل ل ا ر س و ل ا ل ق س د ب ح ل ى و خ ب غ ل دا د إ ل ى أ عتاد إ ل ل ل ل ب ل ع د و ص و ل ه إ ل ى ب ر ح د ر ل ا ل ر ى إ ل ى خ و ا ر ر ز ا و ب ل ل ا و ص ل ل ا ر س ل. ا ل ل ا ء خ ح س و خ و ا ر ز ر ب و ا أ ل ا ر ز ر أ ش ء ع ى ب خ و أ د ر ا ل و ل ل د ك ه ت ق ل ب ل ا ش ت ك. ح ل ا د ب ر ا ش د ب ا عل ب ل ا س ب ذ ل ل ا ش ل ا ه د ه د ا ب د ة ذ ك ر ل ر ى. إ ل ى ا ل خ و ا ر ز ر ل ب و ة ك ل ر خ و ا ر ر ز ه و ا س ا إ ل ا ق ل ة ر ل ه ا ل د ر ا ر و س و ة و ر ل ل و ر ز و ل و ص ع ا ر ز ر س ر و ر أ ت د ر ا ه ب خ و ع ص ا كل ل ب او ل د ا و ل ا ت او ل د ر ا ه أ ة د ا و ق و ل ص ا و صل ر ه ز ه بر ل ع ر و و ب ر ء و ه كت أ ب ش ه ش ء ك ب ق ص ع ق ا ض ل ص ل د و ا ل ل ا س ك ا ل ا ل ا و ص ل ك ا ل ا ه ش ح و أ ه و ص ل ا ه ة أ ق ل ا ل ل ر ل ك ة أ ل ا ل ا ه ع ه د ب ر ا ك ل ب أ ل ل ب ر ض ا ل ب ل ت ع ؤ أ ر ا ل و ل ا س ت ك ا ل ح د ت عس ع ة ش س ر ب ش ر ا. ه و ك ا خ ل ه إ ل ى آ ر و ح د ح و أ و ح د خ ح س ة أ ش ل ر هو د وك ل ل ب ع د ا ل ه ا ل ق ر و ه د ك ا ذ د ب ه إ أ ك ا ث ر ل ا ظ ل ه ل ع ا د و ل ل ك ا ب ل ت ل ه أ ه ع ت ل أ س و ت ه ا ه د ة ش ل ث ا ل ث أ و ر ا ب ش و ه د ه ة ل ل ا ا ل أ ا د ر ا ل 22 22

Khwārazm have a congregational mosque in this city. This is where they perform the prayer and gather on Friday, the day of congregation. It has a tall minaret and a number of muezzins. In the year 310 [922 23], the king of the Khazars was informed that the Muslims had razed the synagogue in Dār al-bābūnj. He gave orders for the minaret to be razed and for the muezzins to be killed. He said: I would not have razed the mosque, were I not afraid that every synagogue in the territory of Islam would be razed! The Khazars and their king are Jews. The Ṣaqālibah and those who live on the Khazar border are under his rule. He addresses them as slaves and they owe him their obedience. Some claim that the Khazars are the tribes of Gog and Magog. Khwārazm 10 I read the following in the epistle that Aḥmad ibn Faḍlān ibn al-ʿabbās ibn Rāshid ibn Ḥammād wrote. He was the envoy of al-muqtadir bi-llāh to the king of the Ṣaqālibah, and his patron was Muḥammad ibn Sulaymān. In this work he gives an account of all his experiences from his departure from Baghdad until his return. After his arrival in Bukhārā, he said: We arrived in Bukhārā and then left for Khwārazm. We travelled downriver from Khwārazm to al-jurjāniyyah. The distance, by water, is fifty farsakhs. I say: These are his very words but I do not know what exactly he means by Khwārazm, because Khwārazm is incontrovertibly the name of the region. Ibn Faḍlān said: [9] I noticed that, in Khwārazm, the dirhams are adulterated and should not be accepted, because they are made of lead and brass. They call their dirham a ṭāzijah. It weighs four and a half dānaqs. The money changers trade in sheep bones, spinning tops, and dirhams. They are the strangest of people in the way they talk and behave. When they talk, they sound just like frogs croaking. At the end of the prayer they disavow the Commander of the Faithful, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, God be pleased with him. [10] We stayed several days in al-jurjāniyyah. The River Jayḥūn froze over completely, from beginning to end. The ice was nineteen spans thick. God s poor servant ʿAbdallāh11 said: This is false. The river freezes to an extent of five spans, no more and even this is a rare occurrence. Normally it is two or three spans thick. I speak from first hand experience. I quizzed the locals about it too. Maybe Ibn Faḍlān thinks that the whole river freezes over, 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 23 23