rticle Article religions ontempltive Contempltive Prctice, Doxogrphies, Prctice, Doxogrphies, onstruction Tibetn Construction Buddhism: Tibetn Nupchen Buddhism: Sngyé Nupchen eshé Sngyé The Lmp Yeshé for Eye The Lmp Medittion for Eye Medittion nuel Lopez Mnuel Lopez eprtment Humnities, Deprtment New College Humnities, Florid, New 5800 College By Shore Florid, Rod, 5800 Srsot, By Shore FL 342, Rod, USA; Srsot, FL 342, USA; lopezzfr@ncf.edu mlopezzfr@ncf.edu eceived: 10 Ocber Received: 2018; Accepted: 10 Ocber 10 November 2018; Accepted: 2018; Published: 10 November 14 November 2018; Published: 2018 14 November 2018 bstrct: In this Abstrct: rticle, I In would this rticle, like I would refrme like our refrme understg our understg role plyed role plyed by by doxogrphies oxogrphies or or views views (Skt. (Skt. siddhānt, Ch. pnjio 判教, Tib. grub mth ) Buddhist trdition s uddhist trdition it s perted it Tibetn Tibetn ttempts ttempts defg t defg orgnizg orgnizg diversity diversity Buddhist contempltive uddhist contempltive prctices prctices mde mde ir wy ir wy Tibet Tibet sce sce troduction troduction Buddhism Buddhism Tibetn plteu o Tibetn plteu seventh seventh century, century, ll wy ll up wy up collpse collpse Tibetn Empire Tibetn Empire nth century. In order n nth century. do In order, this do rticle, focuses this rticle on focuses such doxogrphy, on such doxogrphy, Lmp for EyeLmp Medittion for (bsm gtn mig he Eye Medittion sgron), (bsm composed gtn mig sgron), 10th composed century by Tibetn 10th century scholr by Nupchen Tibetn Sngyé scholr Yeshé. The first prt upchen Sngyé Yeshé. rticle The will first plce prt Nupchen s rticle text will plce lrger Nupchen s hisricl text tellectul lrger hisricl context literry genre nd tellectul context doxogrphies literry genre Indi, Ch, doxogrphies Tibet. The Indi, second Ch, prt Tibet. rticle The second will rgue Nupchen rt rticle will usedrgue doxogrphicl Nupchen genre used doxogrphicl only s vehicle genre for orgnizg only s vehicle rticultg for doctrl rgnizg rticultg contempltive doctrl diversity, but contempltive lso s ol for diversity, construction but lso s new ol for origl system Tibetn onstruction Buddhist new prctice origl known system s Tibetn Gret Perfection Buddhist (rdzogs prctice chen). known Flly, s Gret s smll homge erfection (rdzogs recent chen). Flly, pssg s gret smll religious homge studies recent scholr pssg Jonthn Z. Smith, gret religious I would lso like reflect tudies scholr Jonthn Z. importnce Smith, I would lso issues like defition, reflect comprison, importnce centrl issues concerns efition, comprison, Nupchen s centrl well Smith s works hve concerns Nupchen s cretg s well rticultg s Smith s religious difference. orks hve cretg rticultg religious difference. Keywords: doxogrphy; medittion; non-conceptulity; Nygm; philosophy; comprison; eywords: doxogrphy; ; medittion; Jonthnnon-conceptulity; Z. Smith Nygm; philosophy; comprison; lssifiction; Jonthn Z. Smith 1. Introduction: Wht Is Medittion? Introduction: Wht Is InMedittion? his study diversity contempltive prctices hd rrived Tibet from vrious In his study prts diversity Asi (Indi, contempltive Nepl, Centrl prctices Asi, Ch) hd durg rrived erly Tibet troduction from vrious Buddhism rts Asi (Indi, Tibetn Nepl, plteu Centrl between Asi, Ch) seventh durg erly nth troduction centuries, Herbert Buddhism Guenr mde followg betn plteu between eworthy seventh remrk: nth centuries, Herbert Guenr mde followg teworthy remrk: While it will be redily dmitted medittion hs lwys plyed mjor role wht is While it will be redily genericlly dmitted termed Buddhism, medittion wht hs lwys Buddhists plyed mselves mjor role undersod wht by medittion is is genericlly termed so Buddhism, redily pprent. wht Buddhists mselves undersod by medittion is so redily pprent. Herbert Guenr (1983, p. 351) Herbert Guenr (1983, p. 351) As Prcen Dictionry Buddhism mkes cler, [T]here is no sgle term Buddhism corresponds precisely wht, English, is clled medittion, 1 but term usully renders 1 There is no sgle term Buddhism corresponds precisely wht English is clled medittion. Some its contions re conveyed such Buddhist terms s bhāvnā, chn, dhyān, jhān, pṭiptti, smādhi, zuochn. See entry for medittion Buswell et l. (2014). ligions 2018, 9, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW Religions 2018, 9, 360; doi:10.3390/rel9110360 www.mdpi.com/journl/religions www.mdpi.com/journl/religions
Religions 2018, 9, 360 2 27 eir Snskrit term dhyān 2 or medittive bsorption, or or Snskrit term bhāvnā 3 or cultivtion. Whtever precise Snskrit equivlent, though, Guenr s remrk sts, reflects powerful prdox t hert Buddhist trdition. On h, Buddhism estblished, t lest rhericlly, its very own foundtions on trnsformtive medittive experience Siddhrt Gutm, Buddh, hd over 2500 yers go sittg under bodhi tree while serchg for ultimte nswers his disillusionment world humn condition, eventully culmtg his experience enlightenment. 4 At sme time, s Guenr lso pots out, s ny who hs even superficil knowledge vrious forms Buddhist prctice, wht Buddhists ment ( men) by medittion, how defe it, how it should be prcticed, even its fl gol, becme constnt issue contention over centuries. Medittion is those Buddhist concepts seems hve foundtion solid rock, prticulrly eyes believers, but when exmed closely it resembles shiftg ss. 5 It is by explorg those shiftg ss I will rgue medittion, s concept s well s prctice, functions s fertile contested ground which hs llowed Buddhist trdition ssert n importnt degree contuity unity (t lest rhericlly) techgs Buddh primordil contempltive experience its founder. At sme time, sme contested nture opened door importnt discontuities diversity, s reflected emergence new Buddhist contempltive trditions schools thought over centuries. 6 One ol used Buddhist trdition rticulte this diversity ws genre doxogrphies or views (Skt. siddhānt, Ch. pnjio 判教, Tib. grub mth ). Doxogrphies plyed centrl role expnsion Buddhist trdition from its ntive Indi or prts Asi, prticulrly Centrl Est Asi, by becomg ol for orgnizg hisricl geogrphicl diversity Buddhist scriptures, s well s ritul doctrl prctices developed over time. In Ch, for exmple, Peter Gregory hs rgued doctrl hs ten been sid be hllmrk Chese Buddhism. 7 Gregory, though, focused mostly on sectrin purposes doxogrphies, climed y served very specific hermeneuticl, sectrin, 2 See entry for Dhyān Buswell et l. (2014): Dhyān. (P. jhān; T. bsm gtn; C. chn/chg; J. zen/zenjō; K. sŏn/sŏnjŏng). In Snskrit, medittive bsorption, refers specific medittive prctices durg which md temporrily drws from externl sensory wreness rems completely bsorbed n idetionl object medittion. Gómez, his defition medittion Encyclopedi Buddhism, equtes medittion dhyān : see medittion entry by Gómez Buswell (2004). 3 See entry for Bhāvnā (Buswell et l. 2014): (Tib. sgom p; Ch. xiuxi; Jp. shujū; Kor. susŭp). In Snskrit Pāli, cultivtion (lit. brgg beg ), Snskrit term commonly trnslted English s medittion. It [... ] hs wide rnge mengs cludg cultivtg, producg, mnifestg, imgg, suffusg, reflectg. It is first sense, cultivtion, term is used men susted development prticulr sttes md. Germno Wldron equte medittion bhāvnā ir entry Buddhist Medittion Encyclopedi Religion. See (Js et l. 2005). 4 The clssic biogrphies Buddh, such s Aśvghoṣ s Buddhcrit, Llitvistr Sūtr, mt drmtic tension between his birth lredy s Buddh, his life s humn ultimte experience enlightenment under Bodhi Tree. Despite trdition Buddh s n lredy-enlightened beg, s found those nrrtives, re is no doubt experience enlightenment mrks before fter life nrrtive Buddh. On this prticulr tension, see (Silk 2003). 5 Luis Gómez uses this ion shiftg ss defe different key Buddhist concept, Nirvāṇ, but his ides eqully pply our explortion concept medittion. For Gómez, Nirvāṇ hs cquired pt mkes mny ssume its meng is obvious. Yet, it is word bout which Buddhists mselves hve never reched greement. Followg Gómez, it my be when we sk: Wht is Nirvāṇ? [or our cse, Wht is Medittion?] we seek nswer wrong question. Insted we need sk: How hve Buddhists used term? With wht polemicl or pologetic purposes? Wht humn spirtions might se uses revel? See his Nirvāṇ entry Encyclopedi Buddhism (Buswell 2004). 6 Before I contue my rgument, let me dd cvet: I m suggestg here medittion, or medittive experience, is essence Buddhism. Robert Shrf hs poted out his work dngers reconstructg Buddhist trdition through wht he considers Western obsession ion experience he trces bck Willim Jmes his The Vrieties Religious Experience. For Shrf, [W]hile medittion my hve been importnt ory, it did occupy domnt role monstic scetic life is times supposed. See (Shrf 1995). Wht I do rgue, though, is concept medittion hs functid s n importnt mrker hs helped defe boundries between vrious Buddhist trditions. 7 He lso dds: Although this judgment is surely -sided ignorg s it does mny rich res more populr developments it is certly no exggertion when pplied Chese Buddhist scholstic writg. Doctrl
Religions 2018, 9, 360 3 27 soteriologicl purposes. Tht is, [doxogrphy] orgnized coherent ternlly consistent doctrl frmework diverse corpus [Buddhist] scred scriptures [...]; it legitimized clims different [Buddhist] trditions represent supreme, orthodox, or most relevnt techg Buddh; it provided mp Buddhist pth. 8 Chnju Mun exped this importnt but nrrow understg doxogrphies by ddg wht he clls n ecumenicl type doxogrphies, or views so worried bout estblishg sectrin differences, more focused on rticultg tegrtg universl type Buddhist discourse. 9 Jcob Dln, his overview lte Indin erly Tibetn doxogrphies, highlighted role se hd rticultg Buddhist ritul doctre durg emergence Tntr Indi eighth century, s well s rticultg orgnizg ritul doctrl diversity Buddhist prctice s it ws beg troduced Tibet begng nth century. In this rticle, I would like exp our understg role doxogrphies Buddhist trdition by exmg Tibetn ttempts t defg orgnizg diversity Buddhist contempltive prctices mde ir wy Tibet sce troduction Buddhism on Tibetn plteu seventh century, ll wy up collpse Tibetn Empire nth century. In order do, I wnt focus on such doxogrphy, Lmp for Eye Medittion (bsm gtn mig sgron), 10 composed 10th century by Tibetn scholr Nupchen Sngyé Yeshé. As prt my m rgument, I will use Jonthn Z. Smith s understg concepts defition, comprison, explore how Nupchen used doxogrphicl genre only s vehicle orgnize rticulte doctrl contempltive diversity, but lso used it s ol llowed him clim superiority new digenous system Tibetn Buddhist prctice known s Gret Perfection (rdzogs chen), while legitimizg it lrger context Buddhist contempltive. Followg Jonthn Z. Smith, I will lso rgue Nupchen ws only describg Lmp Buddhism s he sw it, but he ws terpretg Buddhism s he imged it, plyg centrl role durg this period trnsformtion Buddhism from foreign, imported trdition, thg new: Tibetn Buddhism. 2. Doxogrphies: The Role Comprison Clssifiction Construction Buddhism The term doxogrphy ws coed by Germn clssicl scholr, Hermnn Alexer Diels, describe work clssicl hisrins cluded discussions Greek Romn philosophers pst. 11 Modern Buddhist scholrs hve dopted this term describe similr genre Buddhist trdition clled siddhānt Snskrit, pnjio Chese ( 判教 ), grub-mth Tibetn. 12 is most strikg fetures Chese Buddhist scholsticism, it is impossible underst how medievl Chese Buddhist scholrs thought out understg pnjio. (Gregory 1987, p. 93). 8 (Gregory 2002, p. 115). 9 (Mun 2006). 10 Henceforth referred s Lmp. 11 (Zhmud 2001). 12 I would like dd, though, n importnt termologicl clrifiction. Followg most scholrship on this subject, this rticle will use term doxogrphy order describe se Buddhist doctrl. Doxogrphy mens etymologiclly write views, its origs re ttributed Greek trdition. The term describes literry genre which views pst philosophicl re orgnized, usully, sort hisricl fshion. The use this term context Indin, Tibetn, Chese views, quickly shows term does lwys describe ccurtely nture gols se. In Indi term used for this genre literture is siddhānt, Chese pnjio (Ch. 判教 ), Tibetn y re clled grub mth. In ll cses meng generlly refers description prctice ( reliztion, literlly). There re generl similrities mong se Buddhist terms, but re re lso importnt differences. In erly s (especilly Indin s) m gol ws clssify hierrchiclly, but rgue specific doctrl or philosophicl views. Tht is why scholrs re proposg term summ my be more ccurte describe siddhānt or grub mth literture. On se issues see (Mestnz 2005, p. 85). To clrify se issues is beyond scope this rticle, but it is importnt pot out we need be creful when usg Western termology describe Buddhist ctegories, sce y brg m untended mengs object our study. Anor issue relted use term doxogrphy is problem determg wht counts s. In most scholrship reviewed, we fd study clssificry Buddhist usully begs erliest hs survived, Bhāvvivek s Mdhymkhṛdykārikā. But wht bout
Religions 2018, 9, 360 4 27 2.1. Doxogrphies: Solvg Buddhist Hermeneuticl Problem As Gregory poted out his study Chese doxogrphies, importnce genre Buddhist trdition should be underestimted, sce it responded very importnt hermeneuticl problem t core constnt emergence new, rituls, prctices. 13 Lopez trces root this problem Buddh himself, prticulr, conundrum presented his followers Buddh s lst words before his deth. 14 These words re presented poignnt scene Mhāprnibbnsutt, which Buddhist community is witness imment deth Buddh: Then [ Buddh] ddresses venerble Ān: It my be, Ān, you will thk. The word Techer is thg pst; we hve now no Techer. But, Ān, is correct view. The Doctre Disciple, Ān, which I hve tught enjoed upon you, is be your techer when I m g. Mhāprnibbnsutt 60 15 For over 40 yers, Buddh hd creted community relied on him only s ir techer, s trnsmitter truth he hd discovered under Bodhi tree, but lso s its terpreter. Whenever re ws doubt bout possible meng his techgs, community could lwys confer Buddh, Buddh could fer defitive nswer settled ny existg doubts. After his deth, though, community, s Mhāprnibbnsutt mkes cler, is only sd bout deprture ir techer, but y re lso deeply worried bout how preserve meng his words, most importntly, how retrieve it. While lnguge his techgs my hve ppered, t times, equivocl, Buddh lwys could gurntee stbility its meng. The moment described bove quote lso signls, s Donld Lopez hs rgued, very begng Buddhist hermeneutics, sce, s he poted out, [T]hose who re yet enlightened must terpret. 16 On h, Buddh ensures Mhāprnibbnsutt contuity his techgs, sce techg [... ] is be your techer. On or h, he lso opens door terprettion, s he does expl wht this sttement exctly mens. This tension is very importnt understg development Buddhism over next 2500 yers, prticulrly wy which it hs llowed trdition preserve cert degree unity n snishg degree doctrl, soteriologicl, ritul diversity. The ion techg is techer llows lter Buddhist trdition gret degree freedom determe wht techgs Buddh re. At sme time, Buddhists over centuries hd develop series terprettive strtegies order llow trdition re plurlity understgs under umbrell (even if this ws rhericl ) unity ll techgs Buddh. This is plce discuss mechnisms Buddhist found erlier Sṃdhirmocn Sūtr? This sūtr presents hierrchicl, form Three Turngs Wheel, it is lso polemicl, rgug superiority Yogācār over or Buddhist techgs. The pot here is deconstruct ion doxogrphy (or siddhānt, or grub mth ) pot it is useful nymore. The gol is just mke us wre constructed nture term, fct we need be wre fluidity ctegory s it ws used differently different hisricl culturl con. Dln lso mkes n terestg pot when he sys nor importnt difference between Western doxogrphies Indin s is wheres former re generlly philosophicl works restrict mselves views held by ech school, tntric Indi [... ] re lrgely concerned differences ritul prctice, see (Dln 2005, p. 119). Additionlly, for importnt studies doxogrphicl genre Buddhism, see (Hopks 1996; Mun 2006; Eimer 1992; Gregory 1987). 13 (Gregory 2002, p. 20). 14 (Lopez 1988, pp. 1 2). 15 (Wrren 1973, p. 107). 16 (Lopez 1988, p. 9).
Religions 2018, 9, 360 5 27 Buddhist trdition developed order solve this hermeneuticl tension, 17 but I wnt highlight this section importnt role doxogrphies plyed rticultg key differences between vrious Buddhist trditions, tegrtg different doctres, rituls, prctices cohesive system, while orgnizg those differences hierrchiclly order estblish superiority cert doctrl developments contrst competg or old s. The vrious functions doxogrphicl genre re reflection its simultneous descriptive prescriptive nture. On h, we cn exme se trce evolution Buddhism Indi, Ch, s well s Tibet. Doxogrphies n cn be seen s describg hisricl process. At sme time, we cn see doxogrphies s nrrtive written cler gends by vrious competg Buddhist groups ttemptg only orgnize (times contrdicry) ritul doctrl, but lso prescribe prticulr doctrl or sectrin pot view. 18 Doxogrphies, from this perspective, ols crete n ideologicl relity. Beg ble see where se two spects tersect, s well s when y differ, is importnt roles our scholrly reserch se. A quick overview hisry Buddhist doxogrphies Indi, Ch, will help us better contextulize contents Nupchen s Lmp for Eye Medittion, s well s his gols when writg it. 19 Not ll doxogrphies discussed this brief summry hd direct fluence on Nupchen s Lmp, but I hve cluded m becuse I wnt highlight role doxogrphies hd ll over Asi mkg sense constntly chngg Buddhist trdition, s well s its constntly evolvg constructed nture. The gol this overview is lso show how Nupchen used doxogrphicl genre only pssively orgnize vrious forms Buddhism imported Tibet durg his time, but lso ctively cretively engge construction unique Tibetn Buddhist view. Nupchen ws, ultimtely, deeply novtive thker workg very trditionl frmework. 2.2. Indin Precedents In Indi, doxogrphies origlly used s n tellectul ol defe Buddhist positions gst non-buddhist trditions. 20 The emergence over time discrepncies terprettion cert Buddhist ides forced doxogrphies eventully corporte vrious tr-sectrin doctrl issues. In erlier form, doxogrphies rticulted round discussion prticulr doctrl or philosophicl views which Buddhist view lwys previled gst non-buddhist positions. When Buddhist doxogrphies shifted mly discussions different Buddhist philosophicl views ( non-buddhist trditions beg peripherl m rgument text or even cluded), we see shift genre hierrchicl orgniztion those diverse philosophicl 17 Regrdg most importnt hermeneutic strtegies developed by Buddhism solve this tension, see (Lopez 1988). 18 For n understg hisry s nrrtive, see (Jenks 2003). 19 Here, I will discuss Jpnese doxogrphies sce y did hve direct fluence Tibetn world, which is focus my rticle. The doxogrphicl genre, nless, lso plyed mjor role process ssimiltion Buddhism Jpn. In Kūki s works (Kūki 1972, 774 835 CE), for exmple, we see use doxogrphy s wy rticulte superiority Shgon trdition over Tendi school. For Kūki s use doxogrphy, see (Hked 1972). In his discussion Kūki Shgon, McMullen lso rgues esoteric Buddhist scholsticism emphsized ols doxogrphy, txonomy, lege n effort explicte secret techgs buddh. However, which, techgs, leges esoteric hs lwys been mtter debte. See (Mcmullen 2016). Kūki s contemporry founder Tendi school, Sicho (767 822 CE), will lso use doxogrphicl s order rgue superiority Tendi over rivl schools. I wnt thnk Pr. Pul Grr for his sights on use doxogrphies Jpn. 20 Although re lso non-buddhist exmples such s Śṅkrācāry s Brhmsūtrbhāṣy, which sets forth views nāstik (heterodox) āstik (orthodox) schools shows weknesses strengths ech s strtegy demonstrte superiority Śṅkr s own Advit Vedāṇt philosophy. N se Indin works written simply s formtive textbooks bout tenets different Indin schools thought. They sted hve cler polemicl gends: nmely, demonstrtg superiority ir own position, showg how lesser philosophies re eir hdrnce or steppg sne ir own philosophy, s reveled by Buddh cse Buddhist siddhānt, by Veds cse non-buddhists. See Śṅkrācāry entry (Buswell et l. 2014).
Religions 2018, 9, 360 6 27 positions. Doxogrphies, s literry genre, fer Buddhism structure which diversity could be terpreted orgnized, rgug for unity Buddhist pth, while llowg spce for new diverse terprettions. For resons spce, I will only refer most importnt exmples doxogrphicl genre Indi, mly those Bhāvvivek, Śāntrkṣit, Buddhguhy, Vilāsvjr, which will give us sense evolution lte Indin tntr ttempts orgnize new ritul prctice cohesive, clerly orgnized, hierrchicl schemes. 21 2.2.1. Bhāvvivek s Mdhymkhṛdykārikā (500 570 CE) Bhāvvivek (500 570 CE) s Mdhymkhṛdykārikā 22 its u-commentry, Trkjvālā, is trditionlly considered by scholrs be erliest extnt Indin Buddhist doxogrphy (lthough, s we will see, re erlier Buddhist doxogrphies Ch). He is believed hve been fluenced by Indin scholr grmmrin, Bhrtṛhri. 23 The Mdhymkhṛdykārikā fers detiled discussion most importnt schools thought, Buddhist s well s non-buddhist, fluentil durg Bhāvvivek s time. 24 The structure work does follow hierrchicl orgniztion will be common lter doxogrphicl. Bhāvvivek seems more concerned rgug specific doctrl pots gst non-buddhist trditions thn rnkg those trditions hierrchiclly. Nless, we lredy fd Mdhymkhṛdykārikā vigorous ternl Buddhist debte between Svātntriks, which Bhāvvivek is considered erliest propnts, Prāsṅgiks, whose position ws defended by Buddhpālit. 25 Although lter Buddhist doxogrphies will differ content s well s structure, re is no doubt we fd Bhāvvivek foundtion for new wy thkg Indin Buddhist trdition. Doxogrphies will be used, from n on, rgue Buddhist trdition sme wy hd been used pst rgue gst doctrl issues or religious trditions. Buddhism will grdully become more concerned bout ternl structure importnce its own techgs thn rgug gst or trditions. 26 2.2.2. Śāntrkṣit s Tttvsṅgrh (725 788 CE) Śāntrkṣit s Tttvsṅgrh 27 cn be considered erlier (if erliest) Indin doxogrphicl mke it on Tibetn plteu. Śāntrkṣit is considered, fter ll, first bbot Smyé monstery hd very importnt role troduction monstic, by extension, scholstic Buddhist trdition Tibet. 28 Śāntrkṣit s work, especilly s trnsmitted 21 For thorough nlysis doxogrphicl genre, prticulrly Indin Tibetn con, see (Dln 2005). 22 His work hs been trnslted by (Eckel 2008). 23 See (Dln 2005, p. 119). His source is (Hlbfss 1988, p. 268). 24 Chp. 4 is n nlysis determtion relity ccordg Śrāvks; Chp. 5 is n nlysis determtion relity ccordg Yogācārs; Chp. 6 is n nlysis determtion relity ccordg Sāṃkhy; Chp. 7 is n nlysis determtion relity ccordg Viśeṣik; Chp. 8 is n nlysis determtion relity ccordg Vedānt; Chp. 9 is n nlysis determtion relity ccordg Mīmāṃsā. See (Eckel 2008). 25 Although Bhāvvivek Buddhpālit disgreed on nture Mdhymk, I m wre ctegories Svātntrik vs. Prāsṅgik Mdhymk creted only retrospectively still defed s philosophicl durg Nupchen s time. For furr discussion on this issue, see (Hopks 1987; Dreyfus McClck 2002). 26 Dln hs this sy bout fluence Bhāvvivek: [A]t first doxogrphic prdigm ws resisted by mny Buddhism, but it ws prt deep irresistible trend ws sweepg through Indin thought; by seventh century Crkīrti could hve rgued gst doxogrphy, but only on its own terms. In (Dln 2005): A Crisis Doxogrphy: How Tibetns Orgnized Tntr Durg 8th 12th Centuries, p. 119. 27 (Jh 1937). 28 Although or erly sources such s Testment B (Tib. sb bzhed) mention B Selnng (Tib. sb gsl snng) s first bbot monstery. See (Psng Wngdu et l. 2000; Vn Schik Iwo 2008).
Religions 2018, 9, 360 7 27 Tibet by his m disciple, Kmlśīl, 29 will be enormously fluentil Nupchen, especilly his understg wht he lbeled s Grdul Vehicle Lmp for Eye Medittion. 30 Śāntrkṣit s Tttvsṅgrh, followg Bhāvvivek s Mdhymkhṛdykārikā, does fer hierrchicl philosophicl views, but presents n overview importnt philosophicl concepts wy y undersod by vrious Buddhist, s well s non-buddhist schools, like Nyāy, Mīmāṃsā, Sāṃkhy, Js, Aupniṣdiks, s well s Buddhist trditions like Vātsīputrīy. 31 In retrospect, we cn see Tttvsṅgrh s prt trnsitionl period hisry Buddhism. Śāntrkṣit s Tttvsṅgrh reflects Buddhism which externl debtes still overshdow ternl Buddhist tensions. It is lso importnt pot out lck ny mengful discussion tntric, especilly sce se re thrivg durg this period will become center ny doxogrphicl discussion upcomg decdes. 2.2.3. Buddhguhy s Commentries Mhāvirocn-Abhisṃbodhi Tntr (Eighth Century) In eighth century, Indin scholr Buddhguhy wrote two different doxogrphicl s cn be found his two commentries on Mhāvirocn-bhisṃbodhi Tntr, 32 re structured round twold system differentited Mhāyān tntric techgs. He lso cluded division tntric techgs Kriyā Yog Tntrs. 33 With Buddhguhy, we clerly see Buddhist doxogrphicl s re tkg new direction from we hve seen works Bhāvvivek Śāntrkṣit. We see this five m res: First, Buddhguhy s writgs re s concerned rgug gst non-buddhist views s tryg mke sense enormous vriety new Buddhist techgs beg produced durg his time. Second, he lso proposes cler seprtion between Mhāyān techgs new cycles tntric techgs beg produced Indi. Third, he is first Buddhist scholrs focus mly on tntr, mkg ll or previous Buddhist techgs merely troducry or peripherl new tntric cycles. Fourth, we cn lso see chnge ttention from doctre ritul concerns, which Dln sees s centrl feture Tntric doxogrphy. 34 Even if we rgue for pround doctrl relevnce se new ritul vehicles, new will py ttention ritul spects order orgnize m. Fifth, Buddhguhy clssifies new tntrs round dichomy will become very importnt lter tntric thought: externl vs. ternl tntrs. This 29 Kmlśīl (740 95), Śāntrkṣit s most importnt student, wrote n importnt commentry Śāntrkṣit s Tttvsṅgrh, Tttvsṃgrhpñjikā, lthough he did dd ny mjor doctrl chnges Śāntrkṣit s text. He becme relevnt figure Tibetn hisry due his role so-clled Smyé Debte which he defended views grdulist trdition, represented by his techer Śāntrkṣit, gst Sudden Approch, represented by Chn defended by Chese monk known s Hshng Mhāyān. The hisricity debte hs been clled question by scholrs, see (Vn der Kuijp 1984, ; Ruegg 1989, who clled it dehisricized pos ), but re is no doubt nrrtive bout debte frmed wht ws considered n importnt tension erly Tibetn Buddhism, mly methods by which chieve enlightenment. Some importnt sources for debte re (Demiéville 1952; Tucci 1956; Housn 1980; Fber 1986). On issue Smyé Debte its connection doxogrphicl s (see Ruegg 1989). 30 Ruegg provides followg description Śāntrkṣit s : Chpters 1 3 fer discussion Sāṃkhy prkṛti ory custion discuss concept God; Chpter 4 exmes doctre world endowed own beg; Chpter 5 is n exmtion ory śbdbrhmn; Chpter 6 explores ory puruṣ; Chpter 7, Śāntrkṣit exmes views Nyāy, Mīmāṃsā, Sāṃkhy, Js, Aupniṣdiks, s well s Buddhist Vātsīputrīy s pudgl ides; Chpter 8 is n nlysis doctres permnent stble entities; Chpter 9 dels Krm result ctions; Chpter 10 outles six ctegories (pdārth) Substnce (drvy); Chpter 11 is devoted ion Qulity (gun, ); Chpter 12 focuses on Action (krm); Chpter 13 discusses ion Universl (sāmāny) (see Ruegg 1989). 31 (Jh 1937). 32 (Hodge 2003, p. 4). 33 To be more specific, Buddhguhy divides Buddhist techg two: techgs Mhāyān, focused on prctice perfections (pārmitā), techgs Tntr, focused on mntr recittion, which Buddhguhy subdivides Kriyā (focused on outwrd prctice or objective supports ) Yog Tntrs (focused on wrd techniques or on prctice pround vst ). See (Hodge 2003; Dln 2005, pp. 121 24). 34 (Dln 2005).
Religions 2018, 9, 360 8 27 dichomy, which exterior prctices re ferior terior s, will help orgnize new tntrs hierrchicl wy. 35 2.2.4. Vilāsvjr s Spr Khbs (Eighth Century) In eighth century, Indin Mster Vilāsvjr wrote commentries Chntg Nmes Mñjusrī (Skt. Mñjuśrīnāmsṃgīti, Tib. jm dpl mtshn brjod) Guhygrbh Tntr, which he fered two different doxogrphicl s. The Mñjuśrīnāmsṃgīti dds n termedite ctegory, Cryā, between Kriyā Yog divisions found Buddhguhy s commentry Mhāvirocn-bhisṃbodhi. 36 However, it is his commentry Guhygrbh Tntr (spr khbs) deserves specil ttention, sce it hs chrcteristics will be very fluentil for lter Tibetn thought. In fct, Vilāsvjr will be m references, ger nth century Tibetn scholr, Pelyng, formg Nupchen s understg Mhāyog trdition. There re severl importnt spects his. First, lthough Vilāsvjr cludes non-buddhist vehicles, ir clusion is clerly s relevnt s Bhāvvivek s or Śāntrkṣit s. They seem simply be cluded order dd legitimcy lter Buddhist. Second, we cn see new relevnce Mhāyog system which Guhygrbh ws first ssocited. The Guhygrbh, especilly, its 13th chpter will be highly fluentil development lter tntric. Third, this will be importnt for our lter discussion Nupchen s Lmp for Eye Medittion, we fd Vilāsvjr erliest references Gret Perfection. Although Vilāsvjr discusses Atiyog s seprte from Mhāyog, Dln thks prcticl terms [Atiyog] is still dependent on it. 37 In spr khbs, Atiyog seems be seprte ritul moment emerges from Mhāyog, but different vehicle its seprte textul trdition contempltive prctices, s we will see lter Nupchen. Fourth, we lso see thg will be very relevnt for lter New Schools (gsr m) trditions, nmely, orgniztion se tntric vehicles round gender ctegories: mle tntrs focused primrily on method, femle tntrs focusg on wisdom, [plus ctegory ] neuter tntrs. 38 Fifth, fct we cn fd two different Vilāsvjr s writgs (thg we will lso see Nupchen s corpus) cn pot cert fluidity use se ctegories durg this period, but we cn lso see how tntr is tkg shpe wy will be clerly recognizble lter Tibetn trdition. 2.3. Chese Precedents Tibetn doxogrphies, due ir terest Tntric, followed Indin models for most prt, but unusul fourfold found Nupchen s Lmp hs mde scholrs suggest, s we will see, possible Chese fluence. 39 While Indi orgnized round doctrl or ritul issues (especilly development tntr), distctive chrcteristic Ch ws y usully rrnged round nrrtives Buddh s life, ten im promotg prticulr text over ll ors. 40 Obviously, 35 In very different context this wrd vs. outwrd ctegoriztion found n echo erlier denigrtion by Mhāyān ll erly Buddhist trditions, usg lbel Hyān, or ferior vehicle, refer it. The use se ctegories order rticulte ides cn be very powerful sce y ffect wy we look t those erlier techgs. There is no doubt erlier Buddhist prctitirs did consider ir erly prctices rituls s merely outwrds, probbly, complete soteriologicl pth ir own. 36 (Dln 2005, pp. 124 25). 37 (Dln 2005, p. 130). Vn Schik dds Vilāsvjr does give ny specil precedence term rdzogs chen, does employ it ny specific technicl sense. See (Vn Schik 2004, p. 170). 38 (Dln 2005, p. 128). 39 (Dln vn Schik 2003; Meert 2003). 40 (Dln 2005, p. 116).
primrily on method, femle focusg on wisdom, [plus ctegory ] Tibetn doxogrphies, due ir terest ngs will lso see tntrs Nupchen s corpus) pot cert fluidity use ee Nupchen s corpus) pot cert fluidity use cn(thg lso see howwe tntr iscn tkg shpe wy cn Tibetn doxogrphies, due ir terest Tntric, followed Indin for Tibetn doxogrphies, due ir terest Tntric, followed Indin models for Fifth, fct we cn fd two different Vilāsvjr s Tibetn doxogrphies, due ir terest Tntric, followed Indin models for prt, but models unusul fourfold oxogrphies, due ir terest istntric Indin models for ese ctegories durg thishow period, but we cn, lso see how tntr is tkg shpe most wy od, but we cn lso see tntr tkg shpe followed wy trdition. g we will lso see Nupchen s corpus) cn pot cert fluidity use most prt, but unusul fourfold found Nupchen s Lmp hs mde scholrs most prt, but unusul fourfold found Nupchen s Lmp hs mde scholrs most prt, but unusul fourfold found Nupchen s Lmp hs mde scholrs suggest, s we will see, possible Chese fluenc unusul fourfold found Nupchen s Lmp hs mde scholrs be clerly recognizble lter Tibetn trdition. ter Tibetn trdition. 39 39 39 39 39 es durg this period, but we cn lso see how tntr is tkg shpe wy suggest, s we will see, possible Chese fluence. While Indi suggest, s we will see, possible Chese fluence. While Indi suggest, s we will see, possible Chese fluence. While Indi orgnized round doctrl or ritul issue will see, possible Chese fluence. While Indi orgnized round doctrl or ritul issues (especilly development tntr), cognizble lter Tibetn trdition. orgnized round doctrl or ritul issues (especilly development tntr), orgnized round doctrl or ritul issues (especilly development tntr), Precedents dhese round doctrl or ritul issues (especilly development tntr), distctive chrcteristic Religions 2018, 9, 360 9 27 st Tntric, followed Indin for distctive chrcteristic ws y usully rrnged distctive chrcteristic Ch Ch ws y usully rrnged distctive chrcteristic Ch ws y usully rrnged round nrrtives Buddh s life, ten wit rcteristic models Ch ws y usully rrnged Tibetn doxogrphies, due hs ir terest scholrs Tntric, followed Indin models for ir terest Tntric, followed Indin models for dents on Nupchen s Lmp mde round nrrtives Buddh s life, im 40prticulr text ll round nrrtives Buddh s life,ten ten text imover promotg promotg prticulr text over ll round nrrtives Buddh s life, ten im promotg prticulr text over ll Obviously, over Indi or vesfound Buddh s life, ten im promotg prticulr ll ors. prt, unusul fourfold found Nupchen s Lmp hs mde scholrs dence. found Nupchen s Lmp hs mde scholrs 39but 40 40 Obviously, 40 40 While Indi ors. Indi or cycles importnt doxogrphicl ors. Obviously, Indi or cycles importnt doxogrphicl ors. Obviously, Indi or cycles importnt doxogrphicl Indi or cycles importnt doxogrphicl s, but t lest s, but t lest rhericlly, y iously, Indi or cycles importnt doxogrphicl ogrphies, due 39ir terest Tntric, followed Indin models for 39 While est, s(especilly we will see, possible Chese fluence. Indi hese fluence. While development Indi sues y tntr), s, but t lest rhericlly, y t center se doctrl bttles. I will s, but t lest rhericlly, y t center se doctrl bttles. I will s, but t lest rhericlly, y t center se doctrl bttles. I will clude brief discussion two scholrs fro rhericlly, y t center se doctrl bttles. I will clude brief discussion two but t lest rhericlly, t center se doctrl bttles. I will eor unusul fourfold Nupchen s Lmp hs mde scholrs tntr), orgnized round doctrl or found ritul issues (especilly development ritul issues (especilly development tntr), ms Ch ws y usully rrnged clude brief discussion two scholrs from Ch Kore, Huigun (慧觀) Chegwn clude brief discussion two scholrs from Ch Kore, Huigun (慧觀) Chegwn clude brief discussion two scholrs from Ch Kore, Huigun (慧觀) Chegwn 39 While (who lived lived composed composed his mi ( ) ( ) (who discussion twochese scholrs from Ch Kore, (慧觀) Chegwn (諦觀) ll see, chrcteristic possible fluence. Indi Huigun nctive usully Ch ws y usully rrnged ction Ch ws y rrnged im promotg m prticulr text over ll (諦觀) (who lived composed his m works Ch), whose doxogrphies could (諦觀) (who lived composed his m works Ch), whose doxogrphies couldbe be (諦觀) (who lived composed his m works Ch), whose doxogrphies could be seen s hvg similrities his works Ch), whose doxogrphies could be seen s hvg similrities compo ved composed his m works Ch), whose doxogrphies could be doctrl orbuddh s ritul tntr), text over ll nd nrrtives life, (especilly ten im development promotg prticulr sround life, ten im issues promotg prticulr text over ll or cycles importnt doxogrphicl seen s hvg similrities composed by Nupchen. seen s hvg similrities composed by Nupchen. seen s hvg similrities composed by Nupchen. composed by Nupchen. similrities composed by Nupchen. cteristic Ch rrnged 40 Obviously, s. Indi doctrl orws cycles y usully importnt doxogrphicl cycles importnt doxogrphicl ere t orcenter se bttles. I will 2.3.1. Huigun (慧觀) s Five Periods Techgs (五 s Buddh s life, ten im promotg prticulr text over ll fictions, but t lest rhericlly, y t center se doctrl bttles. I will lly, y t center(慧觀) s se doctrl bttles. I will(五時教) Huigun ( ) s Periods Techgs ( ) (d. 2.3.1. Huigun Five Periods Techgs 453) 2.3.1. (慧觀) s Five Periods Techgs (五時教) (d. 453) from Ch Kore, (慧觀) Chegwn 2.3.1. Huigun (慧觀) s Five Techgs (五時教) (d. 453) (慧觀) s Five Periods Techgs (d. 453) importnt doxogrphicl usly, Indi Ch or(五時教) cycles Although re re erlier doxogrphic de brief discussion two Kore, scholrs from Ch Kore, Huigun (慧觀) Chegwn scholrs from Huigun (慧觀) Chegwn m works Ch), whose doxogrphies could be Although erlier doxogrphicl Ch Ch prior Although re re erlier doxogrphicl prior Although re re erlier doxogrphicl disciple Huigun (慧觀 ut t lest rhericlly, y t center se doctrl bttles. I will Although re re Ch prior by Kumārjīv s erlier doxogrphicl be Ch prior presented )re (who lived composed his m works could Ch), whose doxogrphies could be ome re his m works Ch), whose doxogrphies mposed by Nupchen. 41 41 41 41 41 41 Kum rjı v s ((慧觀) ) (d. (d. seem gree gree his presented by Kumārjīv s disciple Huigun 453), scholrs seem his system, presented by Kumārjīv s disciple Huigun (d. 453), scussion two scholrs from Ch Kore, Chegwn scholrs system, presented by Kumārjīv s disciple Huigun (慧觀) 453), scholrs seem gree his system, under nme Five Periods Techgs (五 umārjīv s disciple (慧觀) (d. 453), scholrs seem (慧觀) gree his system, s hvg similrities composed by Nupchen. composed byhuigun Nupchen. (五時教 ws under Periods Techgs uniquely de composed hisnme m works Ch), whose doxogrphies could be under nme Periods Techgs ((rticulte 五時教 ), ws first first rticulte rticulte uniquely 五時教),),),ws under ),Five Five Periods Techgs ws first rticulte uniquely Chese wy orgnizg Buddhist tech Five Periods Techgs ( 五時教 ws first uniquely (五時教) (d. 453) 42 Chese techgs prticulrly fluentil for ome similrities composed by Nupchen. Chese wy orgnizg Buddhist techgs ws prticulrly fluentil for lter Chese wy orgnizg Buddhist techgs ws prticulrly lter Chese wy orgnizg Buddhist techgs ws prticulrly fluentil for lter (慧觀) s Techgs (d. 453) fluentil for lter trdition. orgnizg Five Buddhist (五時教) ws prticulrly shuigun Techgs (五時教) (d.periods 453) techgs 42 42 Ch prior 42 phicl 4242 trdition. trdition. trdition. One distctive chrcteristics Huig Although re re seem erlier doxogrphicl Ch prior er doxogrphicl 453) Ch prior 41 scholrs 慧觀) s Five Periods Techgs (五時教) (d. 慧觀) (d. 453), gree his system, distctive chrcteristics Huigun s system is One distctive chrcteristics Huigun s system is he proposes division One distctive chrcteristics Huigun s he proposes division pproches (dun One chrcteristics Huigun s system is he proposes division techgs sudden e distctive chrcteristics Huigun s system is 41 he proposes division Buddhist 41 scholrs nted by ),Kumārjīv s disciple Huigun (慧觀) (d. 453), seem gree his system, Huigun (慧觀) (d. 453), seem gree hisscholrs system, ( 五時教 ws first rticulte uniquely Buddhist techgs sudden pproches (dun jio 頓教), which correspond Huyn Sūtr Buddhist techgs sudden pproches (dun jio ), which correspond Huyn S u tr Buddhist 頓教), which correspond Huyn Sūtr Buddhist techgs sudden pproches (dun jio 頓教), Sūtr hgs sudden pproches (dun jio 頓教), which correspond prior Huyn Sūtr (Avtṃsk Sūtr) re lso identified Ch erlier Ch re nme prticulrly Five Periods Techgs (五時教 ), ws first rticulte uniquely srere Techgs (五時教 ),doxogrphicl ws fluentil firstre rticulte uniquely chgs ws for lter (Avtṃsk Sūtr) lso identified Chn, grdul techgs he (Avtm sk S u tr) techgs (jinjio jio漸教), ), which (Avtṃsk Sūtr) re lso identified Chn, grdul 漸教), which he ech ssoc (Avtṃsk Sūtr) re lso identified Chn, grdul techgs (jin jio 漸教), which he 41 divides (jin five different periods, tr) re lso identified Chn, grdul techgs (jin jio 漸教), which he. mārjīv s disciple Huigun (慧觀) (d. 453), scholrs seem gree his system, ese wy techgs orgnizg Buddhist techgs for ws prticulrly fluentil for lter uddhist ws prticulrly fluentil lter divides five different periods, ech ssocited prticulr textul trdition. The fl divides five different periods, ech ssocited prticulr textul trdition. The fl divides different periods, ech ssocited prticulr textul trdition. ssocited prticulr textul trdition. divides five The fl ve different periods, ech ssocited prticulr textul trdition. The fl looks s follows: 42 Five Periods Techgs (五時教), ws first rticulte uniquely ion. uigun s system is he proposes s looks follows: lookss sdivision follows: follows: looks ooks s follows: orgnizg Buddhist techgs ws prticulrly for lter 1. Sudden Techg (dun jio 頓教): correspond One distctive chrcteristics Huigun s system isfluentil division eristics Huigun s system is he proposes division he proposes un jio 頓教), which correspond Huyn Sūtr 1. Sudden Techg (dun jio 頓教): corresponds Sūtr 1. Sudden Techg (dun jio 頓教): corresponds Huyn Huyn Sūtr 1. Sudden Techg (dun jio 頓教): corresponds Huyn Sūtr 1. Sudden Techg (dun jio ): corresponds Huyn S u tr 2. Grdul Techg (jin jio 漸教) hist techgs sudden pproches (dun jio 頓教), which correspond Huyn Sūtr echg (dun jio 頓教): corresponds Huyn Sūtr pproches (dun jio 頓教), which correspond Huyn Sūtr Chn, grdul techgs (jin jio 漸教), which he distctive chrcteristics Huigun s system is he proposes division 2. Grdul Techg (jin jio 漸教) 2. Grdul Techg (jin jio 漸教) 2. Grdul Techg (jin jio 漸教) ṃsk Sūtr) re lso identified Chn, grdul techgs (jin jio 漸教), which he echg (jin jio 漸教) 2. grdul Grdul Techg ) which he ntified Chn, techgs (jinthe jil 漸教), socited prticulr textul trdition. 2.1. The three vehicles (s described Lo gs sudden pproches (dun jio 頓教), which correspond textul Huyn Sūtr The fl es five different periods, ech ssocited The prticulr trdition. ech ssocited prticulr textul trdition. fl 2.1. three vehicles (s Sūtr) 2.1. The The three vehicles (sdescribed described Lotus Lotus Sūtr) tught tughtseprtely seprtelyby by Buddh Buddh 2.1. The three vehicles (s described Lotus Sūtr) tught seprtely by Buddh hree vehicles (s described Lotus Sūtr) tught seprtely by Buddh ) re lso s identified Chn, vehicles grdul(s techgs (jin he tught seprtely 2.1.1. bythe Noble Truths Ś 2.1. The three described jio 漸教), Lotus Swhich u tr) Four Buddh fiction looks follows: The Four Śrāvks 2.1.1. The Four NobleTruths Truths ŚrāvksThe fl different periods, ech 2.1.1. ssocited Noble prticulr textul trdition. nds The Huyn Sūtr 2.1.1. The Four Noble Truths Śrāvks Four Noble Truths Śrāvks Sudden Techg 頓教): corresponds Huyn 教): (dun jio Huyn Sūtr 2.1.1. The Four Noble Truths Sūtr S r vks ks scorresponds follows: 37 Grdul Techg (jin jio 漸教) 教) (Dln 2005, p. 130). Vn Schik dds Vilāsv 2.1.2. Interdependent Origtion Prtyekbuddhs e Lotus(dun Sūtr) seprtely by Buddh chg jio 頓教): corresponds Huyn Sūtr 37 37tught 37 37 (Dln 2005, Vn dds Vilāsvjr does specil precedence term (Dln 2005,p. p.130). 130). VnSchik Schik dds Vilāsvjr does give giveny nyrdzogs specil precedence term it ny specific te (Dln 2005, p. 130). Vn Schik dds Vilāsvjr does give ny specil precedence term chen, does employ,2.1. p. 130). Vn Schik dds Vilāsvjr does give ny specil precedence term 2.1.3. The Perfections bodhisttvs. The vehicles (s described Six Lotus Sūtr) tught seprtely by Buddh cribed three Lotus Sūtr) tught seprtely byititit Buddh 38 chg (jin jio 漸教) rdzogs chen, does employ ny specific technicl sense. See (Vn Schik 2004, p. 170). rdzogs chen, does employ ny specific technicl sense. See (Vn Schik 2004, p. 170). p. rdzogs chen, does employ ny specific technicl sense. See (Vn Schik 2004, 170). (Dln 2005, p. 128). nd does employ it ny specific technicl sense. See (Vn Schik 2004, p. 170). he Śrāvks 38 38 (Dln 38 38 2.2. Thep. common techg three 39vehicles; Perfection 2005, 128). (Dln 2005, p.buddh 128). (Dln 2005, p. 128). (Dlnmly, vn Schik 2003; Meert 2003). 2.1.1. Four Noble tught Śrāvks p. vehicles 128). Truths Śrāvks ee (sthe described Truths Lotus Sūtr) tught seprtely by Buddh 39 39 (Dln 39 39 40 vn Wisdom. (Dln vnschik Schik2003; 2003;Meert Meert2003). 2003). (Dln vn Schik 2003; Meert 2003). (Dln 2005, p. 116). vn Schik 2003; Meert 2003). 40 40 (Dln 40 40 p. (Dln 2005, p.116). 116). (Dln 2005, p. 116). 2006; Wu S r vks Wilkson Truths 2005, 2.3.specil InŚrāvks third period, Buddh mde cler feriority 41 (Mun techgs 2017). p.the 116).Four svjr doesnoble give ny precedence term 41 41 (Mun 41 41 42 2006; Wu Wilkson 2017). (Mun 2006; Wu Wilkson 2017). (Mun 2006; Wu Wilkson 2017). (Gregory 2002, p. 111). ln 2005, p. 130). Vn Schik dds Vilāsvjr does give ny specil precedence term Wu Wilkson 2017). dds Vilāsvjr does give ny specil precedence term elevted techgs bodhisttvs. This is mly found Vimlkı rti Su tr. ic technicl sense. See (Vn Schik 2004, p. 170). 42 42 (Gregory 42 42 2002, p. 111). (Gregory 2002, p.specific 111). (Gregory 2002, p. 111). (Gregory 2002, pp. 111 12). zogs chen, does employ itsee ny technicl sense. (Vn Schik p. 170).under 2, 111). p. ny specific technicl sense. (Vn Schik 2004, p. 170). 2.4. Durg this period, threesee vehicles 2004, subsumed vehicle. This techg (Gregory 2002, 111 12). (Gregory 2002,pp. pp. does 111 12). 2002, pp. 111 12)..ln 130). Vn p. Schik Vilāsvjr give ny specil precedence term 128). dds(gregory 2, pp. 2005, 111 12). ws presented Lotus Su tr. dert does employ it 2003; ny specific ln vn Schik Meerttechnicl 2003). sense. See (Vn Schik 2004, p. 170). 2003). 2.5. The fl period, s presented Nirv n. Su tr, tught eternlity Buddh..ln 128). 2005, p. 116). n Schik Meert 2003). 2017). Mun 2006;2003; Wu Wilkson 7). Huigun is considered be first estblish polemicl ions grdul sudden s.regory 116). 2002, p. 111). ctegories orgnize vrious Buddhist techgs,44 reflection debte will Wilkson regory 2002, pp.2017). 111 12). p. 111). be prt Buddhist tellectul life Ch followg centuries. Even though Huigun s pp. 111 12). Nupchen s understgs ion sudden re quite different, spects mkes discussion Huigun s relevnt our discussion Nupchen s Lmp is we will see how this tension between sudden grdul lso plys centrl role Nupchen s doxogrphicl. In Lmp we do only see cler distction between Indin grdul Chese sudden, but even Mh yog re is distction between grdul sudden pproches. 41 42 44 (Mun 2006; Wu Wilkson 2017). (Gregory 2002, p. 111). (Gregory 2002, pp. 111 12). (Gregory 2002, p. 113).
is will period, be clerly but we recognizble cn lso see how suggest, lter tntr Tibetn s is we tkg will trdition. see, shpe possible wy Chese fluence. 39 While Indi Tibetn doxogrphies, due ir terest Tntric, followed Indin m lter Tibetn trdition. orgnized round doctrl or ritul issues (especilly development tntr), most prt, but unusul fourfold found Nupchen s Lmp hs mde s 2.3. Chese Precedents distctive chrcteristic Ch ws y usully rrnged suggest, s we will see, possible Chese fluence. round nrrtives Buddh s life, ten im promotg 39 While Indi clssific prticulr text over ll Tibetn doxogrphies, due ir terest Tntric orgnized, round followed doctrl Indin or ritul models issues for (especilly development ors. 40 Obviously, Indi or cycles importnt doxogrphicl due most ir prt, terest but Religions unusul Tntric 2018, 9, fourfold 360, followed distctive Indin found models chrcteristic Nupchen s for Lmp hs mde scholrs Ch ws 10 27 y usu s, but t lest rhericlly, y t center se doctrl bttles. I will ourfold suggest, we will see, found possible Nupchen s Chese Lmp fluence. round hs mde 39 nrrtives While scholrs Indi Buddh s life, ten im promotg prticulr clude brief discussion two scholrs from Ch Kore, Huigun ( 慧觀 ) Chegwn sible Chese orgnized fluence. round 39 While doctrl Indi or ritul issues ors. (especilly 40 Obviously, Indi development tntr), or cycles importnt d 2.3.2. Chegwn ( 諦觀 ) s) (who Fourlived Types Content composed Buddhist his Techgs m works ( 化法四教 Ch), ) (d. 971) whose doxogrphies could be ctrl distctive or ritul chrcteristic issues (especilly development s, Ch tntr), but ws t lest y rhericlly, usully y rrnged t center se doctrl b seen s hvg similrities composed by Nupchen. round nrrtives The Ch 10th Buddh s century ws life,, y ten clude usully Four brief im Types discussion rrnged promotg Content two Buddhist prticulr scholrs Techgs text over from ( 化法四教 ll Ch ), developed Kore, Huigun ( 慧觀 ) ddh s ors. life, 40 Obviously, ten by Koren Indi im monk promotg Chegwn ( 諦觀 prticulr or ) cycles (d. (who 971), text lived ws over ll composed prticulrly importnt fluentil doxogrphicl his m works Chese trdition, Ch), whose doxogrph 2.3.1. Huigun ( 慧觀 ) s Five Periods Techgs ( 五時教 ) (d. 453) i s, but or it t cycles is lest importnt rhericlly, we y importnt briefly seen discuss s hvg t doxogrphicl it here, center sce similrities se it hsdoctrl been mentid bttles. composed I s will by possible Nupchen. direct hericlly, clude brief y discussion fluence on t Nupchen s two center Although scholrs Lmp. se 45 re from doctrl Chegwn, re Ch bttles. just erlier like Kore, I will Nupchen, doxogrphicl Huigun fers ( 慧觀 ) fourfold Chegwn scheme cludes, Ch prior two ( 諦觀 ) (who scholrs lived from two Ch composed lower presented levels, Kore, Huigun by Grdul his Kumārjīv s 2.3.1. m ( 慧觀 Huigun works ) disciple Sudden, Chegwn ( 慧觀 Ch), ) s Huigun while Five whose Periods ( 慧觀 doxogrphies two) upper Techgs (d. 453), levels 41 could ( scholrs 五時教 clude be ) seem (d. wht 453) hegree clls his system, osed seen s hvg his Secret m similrities works Indetermte under Ch), whose (see nme composed Tble doxogrphies Five Periods Techgs ( 五時教 ), ws first rticulte uniquely Although 1). by Nupchen. could be re re erlier doxogrphicl Ch pri ities composed by Nupchen. Chese wy orgnizg Buddhist techgs ws prticulrly fluentil for lter presented by Kumārjīv s disciple Huigun ( 慧觀 ) (d. 453), trdition. 41 scholrs seem gree th 2.3.1. Huigun ( 慧觀 ) s Five Periods TbleTechgs 1. Comprison 42 ( 五時教 Chegwn ) (d. 453) Nupchen s fourfold s. under nme Five Periods Techgs ( 五時教 ), ws first rticult Periods Techgs ( 五時教 ) (d. 453) One distctive chrcteristics Huigun s system is he proposes division Although re re erlier doxogrphicl Chese Chegwn wy orgnizg Ch Nupchen Buddhist prior techgs ws prticulrly fluentil Buddhist techgs sudden pproches (dun jio 頓教 ), which correspond Huyn Sūtr e presented erlier doxogrphicl by Kumārjīv s disciple Huigun ( trdition. 慧觀 Ch ) Indetermte (d. prior 453), 42 41 scholrs seem gree Atiyog his system, (Avtṃsk 4 Sūtr) re lso identified Chn, grdul techgs (jin jio 漸教 ), which he isciple under Huigun nme ( 慧觀 ) (d. Five 453), Periods 41 scholrs Techgs seem ( 五時教 gree One ( 不定教 ), ws his ) distctive system, first chrcteristics (rdzogs rticulte chen) Huigun s uniquely system is he proposes di divides five different periods, ech ssocited prticulr textul trdition. The fl Periods Chese Techgs wy ( orgnizg 五時教 ), ws Buddhist first techgs Buddhist rticulte Secret techgs ws uniquely prticulrly sudden fluentil pproches (dun jio 頓教 ), which correspond H 3 looks s follows: (Avtṃsk ( 秘密 Sūtr) ) Mhāyogfor lter trdition. Buddhist 42 techgs ws prticulrly fluentil for lter re lso (rnl identified byor chen po) Chn, grdul techgs (jin jio 漸教 One distctive chrcteristics 1. Sudden Techg Huigun s divides Sudden (dun system five jio different 頓教 is ): corresponds he periods, proposes Sudden ech division Huyn ssocited Sūtr prticulr textul trditi 2 hrcteristics Buddhist techgs Huigun s sudden system 2. pproches is Grdul proposes Techg (dun jio ((jin 頓教 division looks jio ), which 漸教 s ) follows: correspond (sn mun cig cr Huyn jug p) Sūtr den (Avtṃsk pproches Sūtr) (dun jio re 頓教 lso ), which identified correspond Chn, grdul techgs (jin jio 漸教 ), which he 2.1. The three 1. Sudden vehicles Grdul Huyn Sūtr Techg (s described (dun jio 頓教 Lotus Grdul 1 ): corresponds Sūtr) tught Huyn seprtely Sūtr by Buddh lso divides identified five Chn, different periods, grdul techgs ssocited (jin jio ( 漸教 ), which prticulr he (tsen textul men rim trdition. gyis jugthe p) fl 2. Grdul Techg (jin jio 漸教 ) eriods, ech looks ssocited follows: prticulr 2.1.1. textul The trdition. Four Noble The fl Truths Śrāvks s: 2.1. The three vehicles (s described Lotus Sūtr) tught seprtely by 1. Sudden Techg Although (dun jio re 頓教 re ): corresponds importnt differences Huyn ir Sūtr understgs ech those ctegories, jio 2. 頓教 Grdul ): corresponds Techg wht is relevnt (jin Huyn jio 37 漸教 (Dln ussūtr ) is 2005, possible p. 130). structurl Vn 2.1.1. Schik borrowg The dds Four Noble Vilāsvjr mtruths by Nupchen. does Śrāvks give Thisny would specil expl precedence term jio 漸教 ) obvious difference rdzogs chen, Lmp s does employ it when ny compred specific technicl lte sense. Indin See (Vn, Schik which, 2004, p. 170). 2.1. The three vehicles (s described Lotus Sūtr) tught seprtely by Buddh s we sw, 38 more (Dln concerned 2005, p. 128). tntric developments thn doctrl philosophicl (s described Lotus Sūtr) tught seprtely 37 39 2.1.1. The Four Noble (Dln Truths vn (Dln by Śrāvks Schik 2003; 2005, Buddh issues. The fourfold doctrl system Meert centrlity p. 130). 2003). Vn Schik tension dds between Vilāsvjr sudden does grdul give ny specil preceden 40 (Dln 2005, p. 116). rdzogs chen, does employ it ny specific technicl sense. See (Vn Schik 2004, p. 1 Noble Truths pproches Śrāvks my dicte cert mount Chese fluence work, clusion 38 41 (Mun 2006; Wu (Dln Wilkson 2005, p. 2017). 128). Chese Chn s Buddhist trditions discussed Lmp defitely dictes Nupchen 39 37 42 (Dln 2005, p. 130). Vn Schik (Gregory dds 2002, Vilāsvjr p. (Dln 111). does vn give Schik ny 2003; specil Meert precedence 2003). ws quite fmilir Chese term 40 rdzogs chen, does employ it (Gregory specific 2002, pp. technicl (Dln Buddhist 111 12). 2005, trdition. sense. p. 116). chik dds Vilāsvjr does give ny specil precedence See term (Vn Schik 2004, p. 170). There re issues when 41 tryg 38 (Dln 2005, p. 128). (Mun 2006; suggest Wu Wilkson direct2017). borrowg by Nupchen Chegwn s ploy it ny specific technicl sense. See (Vn Schik 2004, p. 170). system. First, Chegwn wrote his 42 39 (Dln vn Schik 2003; Meert 2003). (Gregory 2002, system p. 111). t end 10th century Sourn Ch, 40 (Dln 2005, p. 116). his text did circulte widely (Gregory t 2002, time, pp. so111 12). it would be difficult prove it fluenced 3; Meert 2003). 41 (Mun 2006; Wu Nupchen, Wilkson even though 2017). both composed ir round sme time. Second, four ctegories 42 son 2017). (Gregory 2002, p. 111). Chegwn s system re relted methods techg ctul techgs, s y re (Gregory 2002, Nupchen s pp. 111 12).. Despite problemtic ttribution direct fluence Chegwn s system over Nupchen s, re re enough terestg correltions both furr reserch on this issue my be needed settle this pot. 46 2.4. Erly Tibetn Clssifictions It is now time look t erly Tibetn preceded Lmp show wy Tibetns ssimiltg reterpretg lte Indi tntric developments before Nupchen composed his doxogrphy. For most prt, Tibetns will follow Indin doxogrphicl models concerned lte Indin tntric developments, like s by Buddhguhy Vilāsvjr. Nupchen ws lso very much prt this process ssimiltion lte Indin tntric Buddhism, 47 but he ws lso n exception, proposed Lmp n lterntive 45 For discussion Chegwn s see (Hu 2014). Also see (Dln vn Schik 2003, p. 116; Chppell Ichishim 1983, pp. 60 61). 46 I wnt thnk n nonymous reviewer n erlier version this rticle for clrifictions on problemtic nture ttribution fluence Chegwn s system on Nupchen s doxogrphy. 47 This is prticulrly cler lterntive doxogrphicl he wrote his Armor Agst Drkness (Mun p i go ch).
Religions 2018, 9, 360 11 27 system did follow its Indin precedents hd more common Chese doxogrphicl (pnjio). One m differences between Tibetn Indin pproches doxogrphicl genre is while Indin more concerned orgnizg clssifyg new tntric ritul developments, Tibetns more terested doctrl issues. 48 This my hve do foreign nture Buddhism Tibet. Anor importnt spect erly Tibetn doxogrphies is y show Buddhism Tibet process cretive trnsformtion, before lter Ancient (rnyg m) New (gsr m) schools settled for strd ne four vehicle, respectively, durg lter centuries. 49 Two most importnt precedents Nupchen s Lmp Pdmsmbhv s Grl Views Secret Instructions (mn ngg lt b i phreng b) Pelyng s Lmp for Md (thugs kyi sgron m). 50 The former is importnt for its connection erly developments Gret Perfection trdition s seprte vehicle, n importnt spect Nupchen s Lmp. The ltter will hve n importnt impct on Nupchen s understg Mhāyog trdition. Nupchen quotes from both m repetedly Lmp. 2.4.1. Pdmsmbhv s Grl Views Esoteric Instructions (mn ngg lt b i phreng b) The importnce Grl Views Esoteric Instructions ( Grl from now on) for our understg erly development Buddhism Tibet hs been extensively discussed by severl scholrs. 51 There re few spects mke this text relevnt: it is considered be erliest Tibetn doxogrphy; 52 its seven vehicle is cler Tibetn precedent ne vehicle system lter dopted by Nygm trdition; flly, Grl is lso seen s very fluentil formtion erly Gret Perfection trdition. The fct text is quoted Nupchen s Lmp testifies its old pedigree, lthough Nupchen does follow seven-vehicle text, he uses it s source for his understg tntric contempltive prctices. The Grl shres Vilāsvjr s spr khb fct both re commentry Chpter 13 Guhygrbh Tntr. This complex obscure chpter proved be very fertile ground for development tntric thought led erly specultions would be seeds for Gret Perfection. The text fers sevenfold, s we cn see, follows erlier Indin developments, s discussed our previous section. The Grl divides ll Buddhist views three m vehicles: Sūtr, Outwrd Tntr, Inner Tntr: Sūtr 1. Śrāvk 2. Prtyekbuddh 48 (Dln 2005, p. 116). 49 In Tibetn, Ancient, is nme four mjor sects Tibetn Buddhism. The nme derives from sect s origs durg erly dissemtion (sng dr) Buddhism Tibet its relince on trnsltions Tntrs mde durg period; this is distction new (gsr m) sects Bk brgyud, S sky, Dge lugs, ll which rose durg lter dissemtion (phyi dr) mke use newer trnsltions. The Rnyg m is thus ncient reltion new sects only begn be designted s such fter ir ppernce. (Buswell et l. 2014). 50 There re or doxogrphies, both from eighth century: Yéshé Dé (ye shes sde) s Differentitg Views (lt b i khyd pr) Kw Peltsek (sk b dpl brtsegs) Esoteric Instructions Stges View (lt b i khyd p i mn ngg) I will be discussg here for lck spce becuse y re less relevnt for my rgument. For Yéshé Dé s text, see (Ruegg 1981). Vn Schik lso hs rgued Kw Peltsek s text my be by him lter composition, mkg it irrelevnt for our discussion. See (Vn Schik 2004, p. 188). 51 See (Krmy 1988; Dln 2005), Germno two his unpublished mnuscripts, The Secret Tibetn Hisry Buddhist Tntr Ancient Tibet Mysticism Rheric Gret Perfection. 52 Dln clims text is our erliest extnt text entirely devoted settg forth tntric system (Dln 2005, p. 132). Accordg Dln, re is substntil evidence for ttribution text Pdmsmbhv, see (Dln 2005, p. 132, n. 41). Ruegg thks first Tibetn doxogrphy is lt b khyd pr, see (Ruegg 1981), Tkhshi, her disserttion, proposes Pelyng s Lmp Md (see Tkhshi 2009).
Religions 2018, 9, 360 12 27 3. Bodhisttv Outwrd Tntr 4. Kriyā 5. Ubhyā 6. Yog Inwrd Tntr 7. Mhāyog. Genertion b. Perfection c. Gret Perfection 53 Here, s we sw lte Indin trdition developments, Yog Tntr is pushed Outwrd Tntr, showg durg this period system is still very much ply, newer developments rpidly pushg side (or outside, or lowerg, dependg on imge text wnts present) older s. Wht we fd here, though, t lest regrd Inwrd Tntr, is yet system seprte vehicles, but blueprt for grdul, tegrted system medittion outles different stges contempltive prctice. The Gret Perfection trdition durg this period is still prt broder system ritul prctice contempltion. 54 2.4.2. Pelyng s Lmp for Md (thugs kyi sgron m, Lte Eighth Erly Nth Centuries) 55 Pelyng s doxogrphicl system lso shows cler Indin precedents (prticulrly Buddhguy), lthough, unlike Grl, his m concern is Mhāyog trdition. As we hve sid, it is very difficult know if this is erlier or lter thn Grl, but, nless, n exmtion se two, which probbly composed very close ech or time, shows Tntr is undergog very cretive period, new developments contuously emergg vrious tryg rticulte this evolution sort cohesive wy. Pelyng s Lmp for Md cludes, g, non-buddhist s well s Buddhist philosophicl views. 56 We cn lso see Chese fluence Pelyng s system his clusion vehicle Gods humns, which is common mny erly Chese doxogrphies. Dln lso pots out fct while Grl hd mly ritul focus, followg Indin models, Pelyng s focus is doctrl, showg new Tibetn sensibility seems pve wy for philosophicl pproch Nupchen s Lmp. 57 We cn see Pelyng s fluence on Nupchen s Lmp on two different levels. On more generl, Nupchen s Lmp shows doctrl concern Pelyng his presenttion four different 53 (Dln 2005, pp. 124 31). 54 (Dln 2005, p. 88). 55 For n excellent study Pelyng s life works, see (Tkhshi 2009). 56 The fl looks like this: (1) Gods humns, (2) Śrāvks, (3) Prtyekbuddhs, (4) Bodhisttvs, (5) Tntrs (se divided () Kriyā, (b) Upāy, (c) Yog, (d) Mhāyog). See (Dln 2005, p. 137). 57 Tkhshi grees this portryl Pelyng s : The first hlf Lmp Md is Buddhist doxogrphicl presenttion non-buddhist Buddhist, refuted or criticized strd hierrchicl progression lower higher, endg summtion highest system. In this light Dpl dbyngs s work is hg out ordry. However, while most Indin Buddhist tntric doxogrphies center on distctions rituls vrious Tntrs, Dpl dbyngs s Lmp Md hrdly mentions ritul. The distctions concern Dpl dbyngs re exclusively relted view; he does comment on role ritul distguishg wher system is effective. Furrmore, lthough lter Tibetn doxogrphies resemble Dpl dbyngs s Lmp Md relyg upon view perspective, rr thn prctice or ritul for ir rnkgs, it ppers Dpl dbyngs s Lmp Md is mong first, perhps oldest, extnt Tibetn doxogrphy do so. Once g, Dpl dbyngs ppers hve been n novr mong Tibetns this field. (Tkhshi 2009, p. 104).
Religions 2018, 9, 360 13 27 vehicles, fct, he hs no terest ritul spects vrious trditions he discusses. A more direct fluence cn be seen Nupchen s prticulr presenttion Mhāyog trdition, which is strongly fluenced by Pelyng s works, s se re cited frequently Lmp. Nupchen, just like Pelyng, will void, for most prt, ny discussion sexul or violent rheric trdition sted will focus on its more philosophicl spects. 3. Nupchen Sngye Yeshe: Writg Lmp for Eye Medittion Brg Light Drkness Dln hs poted out Chese pnjio [... ] reflect culturl terests nxieties uniquely Chese. The pnjio ten tells us less bout Indin Buddhist techgs y orgnize thn bout Chese concerns t stke So-Indin encounters. 58 This will lso be cse which is why, if we wnt underst Nupchen s Lmp for Eye Medittion its importnce estblishment unique understg Buddhist pth it is importnt look t biogrphicl hisricl context which it ws written. We re sure bout Nupchen s dtes, lthough we cn roughly situte him between mid-9th mid-10th centuries. 59 Vrious ccounts present us figure deeply engged tellectul Buddhist world 9th 10th centuries, trvelg Indi, Nepl, Centrl Asi from very young ge, lerng from wide vriety techers, collectg trnsltg, composg commentries tretises on most cuttg-edge Buddhist literture period, such s Anuyog Gret Perfection trditions. He ws lso centrl rticultg coherent vision for Gret Perfection drwg from erliest textul corpus trdition, Eighteen Texts Md (Tib. Sems sde bco rgyd). 60 He ws lso unique witness politicl events unrveled fter collpse Tibetn Empire mid-nth century. One most fmous sries bout him volves (probbly) fictitious encounter Lngdrm (glng dr m), who is trditionlly portryed Buddhist sources s responsible for persecution Buddhism nth century lmost ersed Buddhist trdition from Tibetn plteu. In short biogrphicl ccount by 18th century Tibetn scholr Guru Tshi (gu ru bkr shis) encounter is described s follows ( trnsltion is me): At time when Kg Lngdrm ws destroyg techgs Buddh [Nupchen] scred this evil kg. The kg sked him: Wht powers do you hve? Sngyé Yeshé replied: Look t power my mntr! [... ] He poted his dex fger wrds rock, lightng bolt destroyed it pieces. Then, terrified kg sid: I will hrm your followers! It is cler due Sngyé Yeshé s kdness mntrs white robes long hir hrmed, generl, [this ws ] gret benefit techgs Buddh. 61 In nor episode described n lleged ubiogrphy, we fd furr stnce which he uses g wrthful mntrs (wht people my cll blck mgic ) 62 order kill group soldiers who surroundg fortress which Tibetn monks lookg for shelter. 63 The figure 58 (Dln 2005, pp. 115 16). 59 One first problems we fce when studyg life Nupchen is uncertty surroundg his dtes. For detiled discussion this issue s discussed Tibetn s well s Western sources, see (Lopez 2014). 60 For hisry Md Series literture, see (Lopez 2018). 61 The Tibetn is khyd pr du rgyl po glng dr ms sngs rgys kyi bstn p bshig p i dus slob dpon dis rgyl po sdig cn skrg pr mdzd de/rgyl pos khyod l nus p ci yod zer bs ngs snggs tsm bzls p i nus p di l gzigs shig ces [... ] d dung nus p di l gzigs shg zer ns sdigs mdzub kyis thog phb ste ph ri i brg l bsnun ps tshl br song/der rgyl po jigs shg skrg ns khyed khor bcs l gnod p mi byed do zer ns btng ste/snggs chng gos dkr lcng lo cn rnms l gnod p m byung n khong gi dr du mngon te sngs rgys kyi bstn p spyi l ng phn p cher byung ngo. In Guru Tshi: 167. 62 For more on connection Nupchen blck mgic see (Cntwell 1997, pp. 107 8, n. 5). 63 See bk shog rgy bo che 20-21b.
Religions 2018, 9, 360 14 27 emerges from se ccounts is scholr, but lso powerful protecr Buddhist techgs, who will do nythg his power protect m. 64 His works, or, we must sy, few hve survived, such s Lmp for Eye Medittion or The Armor Agst Drkness (mun p i go ch), 65 commentry on m text Anuyog trdition, Sūtr Gred Intentions (dgongs p dus p i mdo), revel remrkble tellectul, who ws well-versed wide vriety Buddhist contempltive trditions. His re filled constnt cittions from hundreds Buddhist scriptures, s well s works or Buddhist tellectuls from Indi Ch, ferg most comprehensive wdow textul tellectul world Tibet durg period. 66 Accordg vrious ccounts, Nupchen wrote Lmp erly 10th century t ge 61 67 ne for ll negtive ctions he engged protect Dhrm durg politicl militry uphevl followed collpse Empire. He lso clims hve written text order defend emergent Gret Perfection from clims beg mere Tibetn copy Chese Chn, le ttck will be used by lter Tibetn scholrs such s Sky Pṇḍit. 68 In lrger hisricl context, it is importnt remember Buddhism ws imported Tibet s prt gret militry, economic, culturl trnsformtion L Snows underwent durg Imperil er, between seventh nth century, (618 842 CE), which culmted estblishment this foreign trdition s ficil stte religion eighth century. Durg this period, Buddhism ws imported strictly regulted by stte through few sponsored monstic stitutions controlled wht be trnslted, wht kds rituls prctices llowed. The collpse Empire nth century (842 CE), which Nupchen hd front row set, opened brief but crucil period hisry Buddhism Tibet hs been trditionlly lbeled s Tibetn Drk Age ( cler reference Europen Middle Ages) 69 hs been described trditionl Tibetn hisriogrphy, by most contemporry scholrs field, s period tellectul decy, which Buddhism lmost disppered from Tibetn plteu. The problem this description is while ion Drk Age my ccurtely evoke collpse stte-sponsored, monstic-centered form Buddhism troduced by empire, it lso obscures cretive dynmic chnges Buddhism underwent Tibet durg sme period. It is possible rgue liberted from restrts Buddhist orthodoxy imposed by monstic stitutions no-longer-existent stte, Tibetns ( Nupchen ws key prticipnt this process) ble trnsform wht hd been foreign religion imposed by stte vehicle ws ble express genue Tibetn religious ides concerns: Buddhism durg Drk Age becme 64 For complex tersection Buddhism violence see (Dln 2011). 65 Kpste hs doubts bout ttribution this work Nupchen. Although I gree Dln considerg this work by Nupchen, more reserch on this pic my brg light issue its uthorship. See (Dln 2016; Kpste 2017). 66 The Lmp lso fers n vluble widow textul world Buddhism Tibet before collpse Empire. The Lmp cludes close 750 quotes from lmost 150 different sources, mny m no longer extnt, or hve only survived frgmentry stte. Nupchen quotes from sūtrs like Lṅkāvtār, Avtṃsk, Perfection Wisdom Sūtrs (Prjñāpārmitā); Nupchen lso quotes more thn 50 different Chn msters whose nmes only survive Lmp Dunhung sources. There hs been scholrly work on se sources, prticulrly by Jpnese scholrs on Chn chpter, by ors on Gret Perfection, but re hs been systemtic ttempt trce ll quotes text bck, t lest when possible, ir origl sources. Donti (2006) Esler (2018) hve both trnslted this mssive work. 67 See bk shog rgy bo che 20-21b. See discussion trnsltion this criticl pssge from Bk shog rgy bo che (Lopez 2014, pp. 79 80). 68 On Sky Pṇḍit s ttcks Gret Perfection see his Cler Differentition Three Vows (Tib. sdom gsum rb dbye), fol. 25b. 69 For discussion on periodiztion Tibetn hisry see (Cuevs 2006; Dln 2011; Lopez 2014). On use lbel Drk Age describe this period Tibetn hisry see (Snellgrove 1987, p. 464; Kpste 2000, pp. 10 17; Denwood 2010, p. 1; Mnchester 1992, pp. 3 5; Lopez 2014, pp. 35 58).
Religions 2018, 9, 360 15 27 Tibetn Buddhism. As we will see, doxogrphies like Lmp plyed very importnt role this cretive process. The Lmp for Eye Medittion In my brief overview erly Indin, Chese, Tibetn doxogrphies we hve seen tension t hert genre: On h, doxogrphies conservtive ols tried preserve unity Buddhist trdition fce snishg times contrdicry views, while, on or h, y lso fered vst mount room for cretivity novtion, s new ritul doctrl would be dded older s. Before we focus on Lmp, it is importnt pot out Nupchen, just like scholrs we hve explored erlier, developed second doxogrphicl system durg his lifetime, which cn be found his or mjor survivg work, Armor Agst Drkness (mun p i go ch). This commentry on Sūtr Gred Intentions, key Anuyog text, clerly engges previous Indin s se ritul contempltive s elborted by Buddhguhy Vilāsvjr Indi, Grl Tibet. Nupchen, though, rgues his Armor Agst Drkness for ne-vehicle cludes Gret Perfection (s Atiyog) s seprte vehicle, thg n previous hd proposed. 1. Śrāvk 2. Prtyekbuddh 3. Bodhisttv 4. Kriyā 5. Ubhyā 6. Yog 7. Mhāyog 8. Anuyog 9. Atiyog 70 In fct, vn Schik hs rgued Nupchen s doctrl Armor Agst Drkness my be first stnce ne-vehicle system found Tibet. 71 As Dln pots out, Grl Pelyng s text divide ir highest clss Mhāyog three techniques (tshul) or stges (rim) development, perfection, gret perfection. In writgs Nupchen, se three stges re enshred s three seprte clsses. 72 Wht is remrkble Nupchen s clssificry system Armor is it shows he is prt contempltive textul movement Tibet is rgug for unique nture Gret Perfection, movement wnts seprte Gret Perfection from erlier tntric ritul contempltive stges, trnsformg it its own vehicle. In cse Armor, though, Nupchen seems tckle Gret Perfection specific context Indin Buddhism, while Lmp, s we will see, he is more concerned estblishg Gret Perfection much lrger context Buddhist contempltive prctices cross Asi. The Lmp is divided eight chpters (le u), but hs its core chpters four through seven, where, hierrchicl form, four different Buddhist vehicles re expled. The four vehicles ir degree non-conceptulity re, s follows: Grdul Approch (tsen men rim gyis jug p), which describes trditionl Mhāyān textul scholstic trdition comg from Indi represented mly by Yogācār-Mdhymk school; Instntneous Approch (sn mun cig cr 70 (Dln 2005, p. 140). 71 See (Vn Schik 2004, p. 188). Germno hs suggested ne vehicle doctrl my be Tibetn digenous terprettion Buddhist pth is bsed on Tibetn myth ne-runged ldder connects heven erth ( Dvid Germno s unpublished mnuscript Mysticism Rheric Gret Perfection (rdzogs Chen}). For Tibetn digenous myth, see (Krmy 1998, p. 252). 72 (Dln 2005, p. 140).
Religions 2018, 9, 360 16 27 jug p), represented by Chese Chn; Mhāyog (rnl byor p chen po), which reflects new tntric developments hd become populr Indi strtg seventh eighth century (prticulrly Guhygrbh Tntr); Atiyog (rdzogs p chen po), new contempltive system reflects n novtive Tibetn understg Buddhist doctre prctice. For Nupchen, four Buddhist shre thg common, n cceptnce ion non-conceptulity (Skt. viklp; Tib. mi rg p) s defg chrcteristic medittion. Wht llows him differentite between vrious hierrchiclly clssify m is ir methods (thbs) rech stte non-conceptulity, ir philosophicl views (lt b) or descriptions stte. For Nupchen, ech trdition hs n cresgly subtler understg ion non-conceptulity, refore more pround understg nture medittive experience. 4. Defg Comprg: Medittion Non-Conceptuliztion In section dedicted txonomy comprison chpter When Chips re Down his book, Reltg Religion, Jonthn Z. Smith expls how his erly terests botny fsction txonomy led him directly concern comprison. For Smith, [p]ut simply, txonomy seemed comprtive enterprise which sought similrity cross obvious dividul vritions which sserted significnt difference even fce pprent resemblnces. 73 For Smith, comprison re seprble, sce comprison is never mtter identity. Comprison requires cceptnce difference s grounds its beg terestg, methodicl mnipultion difference chieve cognitive end. 74 Smith s remrks will help us frme Nupchen s gol Chpter 3 Lmp, which he compres clssifies four Buddhist contempltive discussed text (i.e., Grdul, Sudden, Mhāyog, Atiyog). Nupchen s implicitly cknowledges cceptnce difference, sce, his view (i.e., Buddhist view), re is plce for diversity terprettions Buddhist pth. At sme time, Nupchen lso engges methodologicl mnipultion difference order chieve cognitive end ; this cse, estblish hierrchy impose superiority Gret Perfection over or Buddhist trditions. In terms structure text, Chpter 3 is, out doubt, most importnt Nupchen s Lmp. 75 If Chpters 1 2 fer generl troduction prctice medittion Chpters 4 through 7 re detiled dividulized discussion ech four contempltive trditions, Chpter 3 revels methodologicl rtionle behd structure whole text. As Dln vn Schik hve rgued, Chpter 3 is microcosm text s whole. 76 4.1. The Aviklpprveś-Dhārṇī Non-Conceptulity Tibet In Chpter 3 Lmp, Nupchen, very systemtic wy, describes methodology behd will unfold followg chpters. For Nupchen, ll Buddhist shre thg common, which will llow him compre, t sme time, rnk m, s ir different understgs (or should we sy Nupchen s terprettion ir understg) which y hve common is wht gives him bility position m. Wht y hve common is ir cceptnce ion non-conceptulity (Skt. viklp; Tib. mi rg p) s defg chrcteristic Buddh s enlightened experience. Wht sets m prt is how y pproch stte (ir contempltive methods; Tib. thbs), how ech trdition understs it (ir philosophicl views; Tib. lt b). 73 (Smith 2004, p. 20). 74 (Smith 2004, p. 20). 75 It is lso most studied chpter Lmp. See (Guenr 1983; Dln vn Schik 2003; Meert 2003). 76 (Dln vn Schik 2003, p. 155).
Religions 2018, 9, 360 17 27 Although from its very erly stges Buddhism hd considered Buddh s experience enlightenment s beg non-conceptul, non-discursive, direct experience nture relity, emphsis on identifyg non-conceptulity s defg chrcteristic Buddhhood seems hve tken hold Indin Siddh movement. 77 The ion non-conceptulity plyed very importnt role mny philosophicl debtes bout nture enlightenment durg period erly troduction Buddhism Tibet. 78 It ws t hert so-clled Smyé Debte. 79 A text plyed key role troduction this concept Tibet ws The Supreme Dhārṇī Enterg Non-Conceptulity (Skt. Āryāviklpprveś-dhārṇī; Tib. phgs p rnm pr mi rg pr jug p zhes by b i gzungs). 80 Ueym Meert rgue very importnt role this scripture plyed dissemtion Buddhism from Centrl Asi Tibet. 81 Its importnce cn lso be seen fluence text hd on thought most importnt figures Tibetn Buddhism durg its erly stges troduction on Tibetn plteu, such s Indin scholr, Kmlśīl, who wrote commentry on this scripture (phgs p rnm pr mi rg pr jug p zhes by b i gzungs kyi rgy cher grel p), 82 Chese monk, Hshng Mhāyān. 83 The Dunhung mnuscript, Pelliot tibét 116 (PT 116), text reflects Nupchen s understg Chn trdition, lso quotes text. In Āryāviklpprveśnāmdhārn, ī scripture, 84 hisricl Buddh is techg importnce enterg non-conceptul (rnm pr mi rg p) stte n ssembly bodhisttvs, teches fourfold, grdul pproch chieve it which prctitir cuts f mrks (spong b) conceptul thkg (rg p) by enggg whtever thoughts pper md (mngon du gyur p dg yid l mi byes ps). 85 The four different stges will led prctitir stte non-conceptulity re: (1) perception (dmigs p); (2) non-perception (mi dmigs p); (3) non-perception perception (dmigs p mi dmigs p); (4) perception non-perception (mi dmigs p dmigs p). Meert describes se four stges s follows: In first step perception cognizes ll dhrms s mnifesttion mere cognition (rig p tsm), is, ll dhrms re n expression s own md [...] In second step cognizes non-perception objects, which ordry pprehension generlly dheres [...] In followg step non-perception perception trs self non-perception perception mere cognition is non-existent. Sce cognition is possible out n object, cognition itself is lso impossible [...] In fl step perception non-perception perceives neir n pprehendg subject n pprehensible object. As subject object re seprte ntures, non-dulity my be relized. 86 77 Higgs, discussg non-menttion (mnsikār) Indo-Tibetn Buddhism, concept is closely connected ion non-conceptulity, rgues, The first widespred use mnsikār ( non-menttion ) s specific description Buddhhood occurs Indin Siddh movement, lthough term is unknown Pli cnon. The term its Apbhrṃś vrint mṇsiār re ssocited prticulr mysticl songs (dohā or vjrgīti) Srh, most fmous erly Siddhs, cycle ttributed his commentr Mitrīpād (k Mitrīp, b. 1007 or 1010) referred Tibet s Yid l mi byed p i chos skor or The Cycle Techgs on Non-menttion. See (Higgs 2009, pp. 255 56). 78 For recent ccount erly discussion non-conceptulity Buddhism, see (Shrf 2018). 79 This is plce discuss t length controversies surroundg hisricity Smyé Debte. For more on hisriogrphy this debte see (Demiéville 1952, 1970; Tucci 1956; Housn 1980; Ruegg 1992; Kpste 2000). 80 On this scripture, see (Ueym et l. 1983). See lso (Meert 2003). 81 (Meert 2003, p. 177; Ueym et l. 1983, p. 35). 82 Tib. rnm pr mi rg pr jug p i gzungs kyi rgy cher grel p. See (Jh 1937). 83 There is lso ttribution Vimlmitr cig cr jug p rnm pr mi rg p i bsgom don on issue non-conceptulity, lthough ttribution this text is still mtter debte. On this issue, see (Germno 2000; Fber 1989). 84 Wht follows is summry text s described (Ueym et l. 1983; Meert 2003). 85 (Ueym et l. 1983, p. 35). 86 (Meert 2003, pp. 182 83).
Religions 2018, 9, 360 18 27 The relevnce Āryāviklpprveś-dhārṇī, prticulr, importnce ion non-conceptulity s essence enlightenment experience cn be seen rguments two fctions Smyé Debte. Hshng Mhāyān, defender Chese Chn pproch, rgued for complete suppression ll mentl ctivity order rech this non-conceptul stte. 87 Kmlśīl, on or h, his commentry Āryāviklpprveś-dhārṇī, s well s vrious references his Bhāvnākrms, rgued gst Mhāyān s position sce non-conceptulity Āryāviklpprveś-dhārṇī did simply imply complete suppression ll thoughts, or even negtive view mentl processes, s Chese mster rgued, but grdul process which conceptul thoughts ply role grdully enterg fl non-conceptul stte. 88 This is plce discuss nunces this debte. Here, suffice it sy Āryāviklpprveś-dhārṇī its ion non-conceptulity hd very importnt role durg troduction Buddhism Tibet: It fluenced most importnt philosophicl debtes period, s we will see, its fourfold pth ws probbly m fluence for Nupchen s fourfold doxogrphicl Lmp. 4.2. Non-Conceptulity Fourfold Structure Lmp for Eye Medittion As we sw durg our hisricl overview doxogrphicl genre Tibet previous section, Nupchen s Lmp is unusul ferg fourfold scheme when trend, prticulrly for doxogrphicl origted Indi, ws wrds ne-vehicle system ws ble ccommodte ll new ritul contempltive tntric novtions eighth nth centuries. 89 Although orig Nupchen s fourfold scheme is still completely cler, Meert mkes strong cse when suggestg Nupchen used fourfold scheme Āryāviklpprveś-dhārṇī s model for used Lmp. 90 There is no direct cknowledgement by Nupchen this fluence, but ll evidence seems pot fluence Āryāviklpprveś-dhārṇī on structure Lmp: its importnce troduction concept non-conceptulity Tibet; its fluence shpg m rguments Smyé Debte; fct Nupchen is fmilir it, quotes it his text (cludg Section 3);, flly, similrities between fourfold schemes both. 91 87 Ueym rgues Hshng Mhāyān s terprettion non-conceptulity ok s bsic cuse birth--deth fct thoughts ( 想 xing) grsp externl objects, is, mentl impulses rise. He held wkeng consists cuttg f thoughts which re cuse delusion enterg no-exmg/no-thought (Ch. 不思不观 ), (Ueym et l. 1983, p. 36). 88 Ueym rgues Kmlśīl held deny ll thoughts (mnsikār) is deny even correct exmg or vestigtion (prtyvekṣā=so sor rg p) which is necessry for rrivg t non-discrimtive wisdom, is, wkeng. His criticism ws subsumg conditions for becomg Buddh under sight l neglects good prctices upāy contrdicts Mhāyān (Ueym et l. 1983, p. 36). Higgs writes his discussion relted issue menttion (mnsikār) vs. non-menttion (mnsikār) Smyé Debte Kmlśīl s critique Hshng Mhāyān (lthough Chese mster is mentid text, scholrs gree he is recipient Kmlśīl s criticism) is mnsikār does imply suppression or cesstion mentl ctivity but rr its progressive refement through grdul elimtion subjective disrtions [...] Thus, Kmlśīl sgles out mistkg mnsikār for bsolute non-existence mnsikār s mjor misterprettion this concept, pot he furr clrifies his Nirviklpprveśdhārṇī-ṭīkā [...] Conceptul medittion, or words, is necessry condition for non-conceptul reliztion, (Higgs 2009, pp. 258 59). Gomez (2004) hs defended more nunced understg Mhāyān s positions do clude wht my cll n cceptnce Grdul Approch. 89 This is, fct, doxogrphicl pproch used by Nupchen his Armor Agst Drkness (mun p i go ch). 90 See (Meert 2003). Dln vn Schik suggest possible Chese fluence sce scholrs like Koren scholr, Chegwn (d. 971), tught four methods conversion (hu-i): grdul (chien), sudden (tun), secret (pi mi), determte (pu-tg) (Dln vn Schik 2003, p. 156). 91 Non-conceptulity lso plys very importnt role text quoted by Nupchen Lmp, Vimlmitr s Stges Pth: One who wishes dispel obscurtion quickly chieve omniscience should concentrte on chievg quiescence sight, reby genertg ltruistic md. I, like bld person, cn demonstrte this, but relyg on words Buddh or scriptures, I will expl it. By right cultivtion quiescence sight, non-conceptul tuition rises. Through risg this [non-conceptulity], cn bon ll obscurtions tt omniscience is result longtime prctice quiescence sight. Therefore, should strive for quiescence sight. If dwells stte non-conceptuliztion, cn see relity ll thgs. It is cert purifiction ll obscurtion chievement omniscience is dependent upon cuses; refore, should contemplte non-conceptuliztion.
Religions 2018, 9, 360 19 27 Nupchen structures Lmp round ion non-conceptulity identifies ech different contempltive he discusses text different cresgly subtler refed understg concept, Grdul trdition t botm, Atiyog, or Gret Perfection, t p 92 : The Grdul trdition s gol is non-conceptuliztion ppernces (snng b mi rg p), Sudden Approch is non-conceptuliztion non-ppernces (mi snng b mi rg p), Mhāyog trdition ttempts non-dul non-conceptulity (gnyis su med p i mi rg p), Gret Perfection, or Atiyog, trdition s gol is spontneously present non-conceptulity (lhun gyis grub p i mi rg p). Let us explore how Nupchen expls ech se pproches non-conceptulity, sce y re key process construction doctrl difference, s well s beg centrl Nupchen s project buildg new structurl hierrchy will llow him clim Gret Perfection s pncle Buddhist contempltive prctice. 4.2.1. The Grdul Approch Non-Conceptulizg Appernces (snng b mi rg p) In order describe understg non-conceptulity Grdul Approch, Nupchen uses Āryāviklpprveś-dhārṇī: As for tsen men 93 Grdul Approch, when [ prctitir] grdully bons four chrcteristics [which re] conceptulizg nture, (conceptulizg ntidote, conceptulizg suchness, conceptulizg ttment), [ prctitir] enters non-conceptul [stte]. The Dhārṇī Non-Conceptulity (i.e., Aviklpprveś-dhārṇī) sys: The people who wnt wish-fulfillg jewels must use ir mds excvte under extremely solid rock order see m. [So when people excvte] under se rocks y [fd] three precious snes: silver, gold, emerlds. Under se four very firm rocks, ll m excvte [ more] obt wish-fulfillg jewel, which emerges s perfection everythg for ske self ors. [Similrly, those who wnt rech] non-conceptul [stte] should free mselves from four conceptuliztions: conceptulizg nture, conceptulizg ntidote, conceptulizg suchness, conceptulizg ttment. If [ prctitir] medittes bout suchness out cretg existents (yod p) [ prctitir] will ccomplish three chrcteristics. They grdully meditte on three gtes emptess itself (sng p nyid), out signs (mtshn m med p), out spirtions (smon p med p), y lso meditte [usg techniques] Śmth Vipśynā. 94 Kmlśīl, m propnts Grdul Approch, rgued importnce mentl processes (Skt. mnsikār; Tib. yid l byed p) conceptul thkg (Skt. viklp; Tib. rg p) As who reches p lty mount cn see lmost ll surroundg plces, similrly, who dwells stte non-conceptuliztion cn see ll thgs out obstcle or impediment. Therefore, should contemplte on quiescence sight. In (Jmspl 2000, p. 1). 92 In this sme chpter, Nupchen sketches n lterntive threefold non-conceptul does develop text. For brief discussion this lterntive system, see (Dln vn Schik 2003, p. 154). 93 It is terestg pot out Nupchen uses Tibetn (rim gyis), s well s Chese term (tsen men), designte Grdul Approch. For Sudden school he lso uses both lnguges (Tib. cig cr; Ch. n mun). 94 Lmp 55.6 57.1: de l tsn med rim gyis jug p ni/rng bzh (56.1) l rgs p i mtshn m l sogs b <dng gny po rg p dng/de kho n nyid l shrgs p dng/thob p l rg p dng/> bzhi rim gyis spngs ns/mi rg p l jug p ste/de yng mi rg p i gzungs ls/yid bzh gyi nor bu r po (56.2) che dod p i mis brg sh tu rs zhg greg p i og n yid kyis rkos shig//r po che di lt ste//(56.3) brg de i og n/dngul r po che dng/gser dng/rdo i snyg po o//de dg l r po che i brg gsum//brg sh tu sr b dng bzhi i og ns/de yo brkos (56.4) p dng/yid bzh nor bu bdg dng gzhn don thms cd rdzogs pr byung b thob p de bzh tu/rnm pr mi rg p dod ps/rng bzh l rg p i mthn (56.5) m dng/gnyen po l rg p i mtshn m dng/de kho n nyid l rg p i mtshon m dng/thob p l rg p i mtshn m de bzhi dng brl br bys ns/mtshn (56.6) m gsum po l de kho n yis yod l m bys pr bsgom n grub bo//zhes gsungs ps/rim pr bsgom p dng/gzhn sng p nyid dng/mtshn (57.1) m med p dng/smon p med p i sgo gsum rim pr bsgom p dng/zhi gns lhg mthong l sogs p bsgom p o//.
Religions 2018, 9, 360 20 27 s strtg pot medittion pth, s well centrl difference Sudden Approch. In this trdition, n, we see grdul bonment process conceptuliztion. 95 4.2.2. The Sudden Approch Non-Conceptulizg Non-Appernces (mi snng b mi rg p) Accordg Nupchen, prctitirs Sudden Approch do need beg medittive prctice by enggg conceptul thkg, sce y re ble stntneously enter non-conceptul stte: From begng, out lterntg [methods], y tr unborn ultimte [...] The entrnce gte Sudden Approch hs been expled by mny techers [such s] Gret Mster Bodhidhrm, who sid Turn correct direction bon Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW conceptulity. When you bide wll-gzg, 96 21 28 re is no self or. Common people conceptulity. noblewhen s re you bide wll-gzg, sme. When 96 re bidg is no self stedily, or. out Common movg, from n on, people [you] will noble s gore fter words sme. techgs. When bidg [You] will stedily, bide out movg, stte true meng, from where n on, re [you] iswill non-conceptuliztion, go fter words techgs. no ctivity. [You] 97 will bide stte true meng, where re is non-conceptuliztion, no ctivity. 97 The superiority Sudden over Grdul is, ccordg Nupchen, bsed on The superiority Sudden over Grdul is, ccordg Nupchen, bsed on cknowledgment superiority non-conceptulity over conceptulity s strtg pot cknowledgment superiority non-conceptulity over conceptulity s strtg pot contempltion. The problem, though, s Guenr poted out, is Sudden Approch still contempltion. The problem, though, s Guenr poted out, is Sudden Approch still emphsizes emphsizes non-mtic non-mtic [i.e., [i.e., non-conceptulity] non-conceptulity] over over gst gst mtic [i.e., [i.e., conceptulity] conceptulity] out relizg out relizg experience experience is mdeis up mde both, up both, mtic mtic non-mtic. mtic. Nupchen 98 Also, critizices Nupchen critizices Chese Sudden Chese trdition Sudden sce, trdition ir sce, efforts ir efforts distnce distnce mselves from ny 98 Also, mselves type from conceptulity ny type ( conceptulity refore, ( seprte refore, mselves seprte from mselves Grdul from Approch), Grdul y seem Approch), hve reified y seem ide hve non-conceptulity reified ide non-conceptulity lmost out icg lmost out it. 99 Asicg Guenr it. 99 rgues, As To spek Guenr rgues, To spek thg s never hvg come existence is hve concept thg, which we my mke ttributions. This is precisely be bck mtic spect experience, this follower stntneous [i.e., Sudden] Approch will dmit. 100 95 Nupchen describes it s process which three types conceptuliztion re grdully bd. These three types conceptul discrimtion (triviklp) re described Prcen Dictionry Buddhism s: (1) Intrsic discrimtion 4.2.3. Mhāyog Non-Dul (svbhāvviklp), whichnon refersconceptulity itil dvertence (gnyis su med thought p i mi (vitrk) rg p) subsequent susted ttention (vicār) perceived object six sensory consciousnesses (vijñān), is, discrimtion present objects, s when visul consciousness perceives visul object. (2) Conceptulizg discrimtion (bhirūpṇāviklp), which refers discursive thought on ides rise sixth mentl consciousness when it dverts wrd mentl object is ssocited ny three time periods pst, present, or future. (3) Discrimtion volvg reflection on pst events (nusmrṇviklp), which refers discrimtive thought volvg memory pst objects. 96 96 The term The term wll-gzg (lhm (lhm mer mer gns gns p) p) refers refers Chese term bigun ((( 壁觀 ), ), key key concept for for erly Chn trdition erly s Chn found trdition Bodhidhrm s s found The Bodhidhrm s Tretise on The Two Tretise Entrnces on Two Four Entrnces Prctices (Ch. Four 二入四行论 Prctices (Ch. ). As 二入 McRe hs poted 四行论 out, ). As though, McRe this hs concept poted hs out, bedeviled though, this Chn concept trdition hs bedeviled ever sce itschn troduction trdition [ever sce text], its sce ultimtely, no relly knows wht term mens. It only occurs or more-or-less contemporneous source, list troduction [ text], sce ultimtely, no relly knows wht term mens. It only occurs medittion prctices recommended for begners, where it occurs out explntion. (McRe, p. 30). As McRe pots out, or eventully, more-or-less termcontemporneous cme be terpreted source, list Chn medittion trdition s prctices referrgrecommended ct sittg for begners, medittion fcg wll, where but it occurs s dicted out explntion. discussion(mcre, Bodhidhrm s p. 30). As McRe hgiogrphicl pots out, evolution eventully, bove, it ok term cme time be for this meng terpreted tke hold. (McRe Chn trdition 2003, p. s 30). referrg Meert hs rgued ct sittg Tibetn medittion lhmfcg mer gns wll, p but should s dicted be trnslted s bidg discussion lumosity, Bodhidhrm s fers compellg hgiogrphicl cse sevolution why this bove, should it ok be. In this cse, time though, for this meng I prefer use wll-gzg tke hold. sce (McRe term is 2003, usedp. 30). Meert context hs rgued Sudden techgs Tibetn Bodhidhrm, lhm mer gns p wll-gzg should be is trnslted most common term trnslte Chese bigun, which is wht I thk Tibetn term is tryg trnslte (s Meert herself cknowledges s bidg lumosity, fers compellg cse s why this should be. In this cse, though, I her rticle). See (Meert 2007, p. 255). I wnt thnk n nonymous reder for potg out need clrify my use prefer wll-gzg use wll-gzg trnslte sce Tibetn term is lhm used mer gns context pi. Sudden techgs Bodhidhrm, 97 wll-gzg Lmp 57.1 58.2: is sn most mun common ni cig term cr (57.2) trnslte jug p ste/dng Chese pobigun, ns re mos which p med is wht pri don thk dm p Tibetn m skyes p nyid l cig term cr is tryg slob te/shes trnslte rb kyi (s ph Meert rol duherself phycknowledges p i mdo ls//dng her po rticle). sems bskyed See (Meert p (57.3) 2007, nsp. rnm 255). p I wnt thms cd mkhyen p thnk nyidn l nonymous yid by o//[...] reder mkhn for <gzhung potg bstn/> out po need chen (57.6) clrify pomy bouse dhe dr wll-gzg mo t rs bshd trnslte p ls/yng dg p l phyogs Tibetn shg lhm rgs mer p gns spngs pi. te/lhm mer gns n/bdg kyng med gzhn yng med/m (58.1) rbs dng phgs p mnym 97 Lmp zhg 57.1 58.2: gcig sn ste/mi mun gyur ni br cig brtn cr (57.2) pr gns jug p n/de ste/dng phnpo chd ns yi re ge mos dng p bstn med pr p idon rjes dm su mi p brng m skyes ngo// di ni yng dg (58.2) p i don gyi rnl du phb p rnm pr rg p med p/zheng zhg by b med p ste/de ni don l mi jug p o//. p 98 nyid l cig cr slob te/shes rb kyi ph rol du phy p i mdo ls//dng po sems bskyed p (57.3) ns rnm (Guenr 1983, p. 356). p 99thms cd mkhyen p nyid l yid by o//[...] mkhn <gzhung bstn/> po chen (57.6) po bo dhe dr mo t In chpter dedicted Mhāyog trdition, Nupchen criticizes Sudden trdition for thkg ir view rs bshd is free p from ls/yng ctivity, dg p but l irs phyogs is shg only rgs prtil p understg spngs te/lhm mer gns concept, n/bdg sce kyng it is med grounded gzhn superior yng non-dul med/m (58.1) view rbs Mhāyog: dng phgs tshe p de mnym nyid lzhg dbnggcig bsgyur ste/mi chen gyur por br gyur brtn b dng pr gns drn/de ste/sn phn mun chd dng (226.6) ng lt yi ge bs dng by bstn b dng p i rjes brlsu bmi skd brng zer yng/g ngo// di ni p yng chen dg po(58.2) gnyisp i su med don gyi p irnl de bzh du phb nyid/mth p rnm yng pr rg m mthong ste/don p med dmp/zheng b zhig zhg l mi by stsol b med du zd p ste/de de/(227.1) ni don jgl p mi non jug bgrong p o//. p mthr phy ns de bzh gshegs ps dbng bskur ns 98 (Guenr bzod rdo 1983, rjep. lt356). bu gnyis med shr ns snggs mthong b dng/(227.2) de bzh du d lt blo l brtn pr cud zhig dug du 99 m btub kyng/gnyis su med p rdo rje lt bu i ye shes l slob ps/tshe di nyid l mthr thug p i phyir rol kyng (227.3) In chpter dedicted Mhāyog trdition, Nupchen criticizes Sudden trdition for thkg ir view is free from ctivity, but irs is only prtil understg concept, sce it is grounded superior non-dul view Mhāyog: tshe de nyid l dbng bsgyur chen por gyur b dng dr ste/sn mun dng (226.6) ng lt bs by b dng brl b skd zer yng/g p chen po gnyis su med p i de bzh nyid/mth yng m mthong ste/don dm p b zhig l mi stsol du zd de/(227.1) jg p non bgrong p mthr phy ns de bzh gshegs ps dbng bskur ns bzod rdo rje lt bu gnyis med shr ns snggs mthong b dng/(227.2) de bzh du d lt blo l brtn pr cud zhig dug du m btub kyng/gnyis su
Religions 2018, 9, 360 21 27 thg s never hvg come existence is hve concept thg, which we my mke ttributions. This is precisely be bck mtic spect experience, this follower stntneous [i.e., Sudden] Approch will dmit. 100 4.2.3. Mhāyog Non-Dul Non Conceptulity (gnyis su med p i mi rg p) Accordg Nupchen, Mhāyog tries brek free from this tension between conceptulity non-conceptulity by embrcg non-dul nture relity which those distctions dispper: As for ner non-conceptul Thusness, Mhāyog trdition [proposes] ll phenomen hve rdince trsic wreness [ refore], two truths do exist, gent does ct [upon phenomen], it becomes lumous [nturlly]. [All phenomen] re non-dul sphere wisdom. The Guhysmāj Tntr sys, The object medittion is n object, ctivity medittion is medittion, refore, becuse objects do exist, re is no object reference medittion. 101 However, s Guenr rgues his terprettion Nupchen s presenttion Mhāyog s pproch non-conceptulity: It is precisely this ttempt preserve unitry [i.e., non-dul] chrcter experience s n teriority which re is neir nor out prevents experience from comg grips spontneity [] pure experience. 102 For Guenr, both Grdul Sudden trditions hve n onlogicl pproch contempltion which prctitir objectifies relity durg prctice medittion. The Mhāyog trdition is wre pitfll focuses on non-dulity, but its effort preserve non-dul nture medittive experience, it does leve spce for cknowledgement spontneous dynmic nture relity. Although I fd Guenr s terprettion compellg, he is lso mny wys s much n pologist Nupchen s work, s he is n terpreter. While he my be right bout Nupchen s defition non-conceptulity Mhāyog trdition, he lso seems ignore Nupchen is responsible for terprettive frmework which ech trditions is defed flly judged, which will ultimtely llow him clim superiority Gret Perfection trdition. 4.2.4. Atiyoy Spontneously Present Non-Conceptulity (lhun gyis grub p i mi rg p) Flly, Nupchen presents wht he considers be highest vehicle, Atiyog, or Gret Perfection, which would fer supreme understg non-conceptulity, non-conceptulity which is spontneously perfect (lhun gyis grub p i mi rg p): As for spontneously perfected Thusness Atiyog, Supreme Yog, ll pperg existg phenomen re primordilly self-rdint sce y rem perfect perfectly pure sphere self-emergent wisdom. As for cuse result, which re spontneously perfected out ny need serch [for m], this is Gret Self, where re is no movement, no prticles, no nmes. So wht is meditte cler rdince where re is n trsic wreness is estblished, does wver, is tted, mi byi chr yng mi phod de/de ni lt b i don gzhi ns khyd pr du phgs ps rgyu i g ps thob p i byng chub sems dp nyid/ dir dng po sems bskyed ps (227.4) zil gyis gnon pr gsungs yng/sems dng po skyes p ns gnyis su med p i don l sems bskyed ps/sbs de ls gyur p ste/zhib tu phyis chd (227.5) do/. 100 (Guenr 1983, p. 357). 101 Lmp 59.3 59.6: nng p i mi rg p de bzh nyid ni/mh yo g i gzhung gis/chos thms cd ni rng rig pr gsl b nyid bden p gnyis med p/byed p pos m bys p dng/yong gis od gsl b/dbyg ye shes gnyis su med p ste/gsng b dus p ls/dngos po bsgom p med p i dngos//bsgom pr by b bsgom p med//de ltr dngos po dngos med ps//bsgom p dmigs su med p o//zhes gsungs ps. 102 (Guenr 1983, p. 360).
Religions 2018, 9, 360 22 27 does settle? Wht is re recollect? There is hg [...] Non-conceptulity is itself [mere] concept. 103 Here, non-dul pproch Mhāyog trdition is superseded by n understg relity Religions 2018, which 9, x everythg FOR PEER REVIEW is spontneously perfect, refore re is no need for ny 23 effort 28 or prctice rech stge non-conceptulity. Wht llows Nupchen mke this clim is only unique unique understg non-conceptulity espoused by by Gret Gret Perfection, but but lso lso its its non-dul, dul, spontneous nture, nture, concepts concepts will bewill t be t center center this new this Tibetn new Tibetn trdition. spontneous trdition. 4.2.5. 4.2.5. Medittion Rungs Ldder The The structurl structurl similrity similrity Nupchen s Nupchen s system system fourfold fourfold presenttion presenttion non-conceptulity conceptulity Āryāviklpprveś-dhārṇī Āryāviklpprveś-dhārṇī cn be seen cn Figure be seen 1. Figure 1. Medittionl System (Tib. g p) The Gret Perfection (rdzogs p chen po) (Chpter 7) Mhāyog (rnl byor p chen po) (Chpter 6) Understg non-conceptulity Spontneously present nonconceptulity (lhun gyis grub p i mi rg p) Non-dul non-conceptulity (gnyis su med p i mi rg p) Non-Conceptulity Āryāviklpprveś-dhārṇī Perception non-perception (mi dmigs p dmigs p). Non-perception perception (dmigs p mi dmigs p) Sudden Approch (sn mun cig cr jug p) (Chpter 5) Non-conceptuliztion non-ppernces (mi snng b mi rg p) Non-perception (mi dmigs p), Grdul Approch (tsen men rim gyis jug p) (Chpter 4) Non-conceptuliztion ppernces (snng b mi rg p) Perception (dmigs p) Figure Figure 1. 1. The The Lmp for for Eye Medittion Āryāviklpprveś-dhārṇī. Nupchen seems dicte four trditions rticulte grdul pth which prctitir could follow stges contempltive techniques ech trditions order order chieve supreme form non-conceptulity, Atiyog trdition. He He sutes s s much much text text when when he he clims: The The differences between se [contempltive ] ] re like re likerungs rungs ldder. Just ldder. Just s s ldder ldder hs higher hs higher lower lower rungs, rungs, so re sodifferences re differences between se between four non- se four non-conceptuliztions [ [ Grdul, Grdul, Sudden, Sudden, Mhāyog, Mhāyog, Atiyog Atiyog trditions]. trditions]. 104 104 Nless, re re is is lso lso n n importnt tension t core system. The Theoverll grdul grdul messge messge implied implied imge imge ldder resontes pproch pprochpresented presented Āryāviklpprveś-dhārṇī. The problem, though, emerges when Nupchen ttches ech stges non-conceptulity different Buddhist contempltive trdition. While ll Buddhist trditions s described by Nupchen my shre this ion non-conceptulity, n those trditions, besides 103 Lmp 60.3 60.6: ti yo g lhg p i rnl byor gyi lhun rdzogs de bzh nyid ni//snng srid gyi chos so cog rng byung gi ye shes Gret rnmperfection, pr dg p i (60.3) which klongnupchen du sel medbelongs, pr ye ns would rng gslgree b l//rgyu dng Nupchen s brs bu ril portryl m btsl br lhun ir gyis understg rdzogs p ni/bdg nyid it, cheny po ps/de would, l g-yo most rdul certly, mg (60.4) yng situte medmselves ps/rng rig ppositions m bzhg m feriority g-yos m bsld vis-à-vis m zhugs or pr lhntrditions. ne lhng nge They ye gsl re br ll, ci zhig from bsgom/ci ir respective zhig drn pr pots byr yod de view, med/(60.5) perfect med p i complete don de nyid kho n yod/de dng du len p su zhig ste/ye mi rg p chen po l/snng b bkg p yng med l/de l rgs p med contempltive de/mi rg p (60.6), nyid kyng bl it dwgs is only so//. context Nupchen s project or re 104 demoted. Lmp 60.6 61.1: This de tension dg gi is khyd lso ccentuted pr sks gyi gdng by bufct bzh te/dper throughout n sks gdng text l mtho Nupchen dmncontuously yod pr dng dr undermes ste/mi rg p di bzhi ide yng khyd grdul prpproch yod <sn tsen his mh overll ti/>//. system Thewhen sme ion he keeps is repeted dismissg fl ll colophon text Lmp 500.4: tsen sn mi dmigs nng p i mi rg de bzh nyid//lhun rdzogs mi rg khyd pr sks bzh chud pr by o// Bold itlics re me. 104 Lmp 60.6 61.1: de dg gi khyd pr sks gyi gdng bu bzh te/dper n sks gdng l mtho dmn yod pr dng dr ste/mi rg p di bzhi yng khyd pr yod <sn tsen mh ti/>//. The sme ion is repeted fl colophon text Lmp 500.4: tsen sn mi dmigs nng p i mi rg de bzh nyid//lhun rdzogs mi rg khyd pr sks bzh chud pr by o// Bold itlics re me.
Religions 2018, 9, 360 23 27 Āryāviklpprveś-dhārṇī. The problem, though, emerges when Nupchen ttches ech stges non-conceptulity different Buddhist contempltive trdition. While ll Buddhist trditions s described by Nupchen my shre this ion non-conceptulity, n those trditions, besides Gret Perfection, which Nupchen belongs, would gree Nupchen s portryl ir understg it, y would, most certly, situte mselves positions feriority vis-à-vis or trditions. They re ll, from ir respective pots view, perfect complete contempltive, it is only context Nupchen s project or re demoted. This tension is lso ccentuted by fct throughout text Nupchen contuously undermes ide grdul pproch his overll system when he keeps dismissg ll or trditions exception Gret Perfection, criticizg ir pproches ech chpters. 5. Conclusions: Comprison, Clssifiction, Construction Tibetn Buddhism Here, I would like brg bck Jonthn Smith s ides order ddress herent tension Nupchen s system ( ll doxogrphies for mtter). In first plce, Smith cn help us underst constructed nture Nupchen s. For Smith, Comprisons re given, y re result thought... comprison does necessry tell us how thgs re... like models metphors, comprisons tells us how thgs might be redescribed. 105 Under this different terprettion comprison, we cn see Nupchen s project s description Buddhism durg his time s existg out re, but s cretive project which Nupchen is reenvisiong wht Buddhism could hve been Tibet. 106 Secondly, for Smith, comprisons:... brg differences ger spce scholr s md for scholr s own tellectul resons [...] Comprison provides mens by which we re-vision phenomen s our dt order solve our oreticl problems. Comprison, s seen from such view, is n ctive, t times even plyful, enterprise deconstruction reconstruction which gives scholr shiftg set chrcteristics which negotite reltions between his or her oreticl terests dt stipulted s exemplry. 107 The ion non-conceptulity llows Nupchen brg ger se four different trditions spce scholr s md for scholr s own tellectul resons. These tellectul resons cn be seen s twold. On h, Nupchen wnts mke sense vriety Buddhist contempltive hd mde ir wy Tibet up until his own time. On or h, he wnts estblish superiority his own contempltive trdition, Gret Perfection, bove ll or Buddhist trditions. Defition, comprison, usg Smith s terms, fered Nupchen ols ctively cretively deconstruct Buddhist trdition only put it bck ger new, origl wy responds only hisricl developments Buddhist trdition over centuries, but present hisricl context which Buddhist trdition ws developg Tibet. As we hve seen bove, Nupchen lived durg so-clled Drk Age period, it might well be it ws under cover this drkness Tibetns like him ble liberte mselves from restrts Buddhist orthodoxy imposed by monstic stitutions no-longer-existent stte. Thus, it ws this post-imperil period scholrs like Nupchen simply terested importg trnsltg Buddhism wholesle, but hve become fully engged wider converstion is tkg plce cross Asi bout Buddhist doctre prctice. In Lmp, we do 105 (Smith 2004, pp. 23 24). 106 In his unpublished 1996 lecture, Why Imge Religion, Smith fers useful metphor understg function Nupchen s text by syg mps re structures trnsformtion, structures representtion. I believe this is very useful imge pply Nupchen s, sce it relly opertes s n tellectul mp it is simply tryg reproduce Buddhist relity Nupchen s time, but lso ctively trnsform it. 107 (Smith 1990, p. 51).
Religions 2018, 9, 360 24 27 only see presenttion estblished Buddhist views cross content, but cretive Tibetn ttempt trnsform wht hd been foreign religion vehicle expressed genue Tibetn religious ides concerns. As Smith lso rgued, [T]he world is given, it is simply re. We constitute it by cts terprettion. We constitute it by ctivities speech memory judgment. It is by n ct humn will, through projects lnguge hisry, through words memory, we fbricte world ourselves. 108 I believe by lookg t Nupchen s project through lens Smith, we cn reenvision Nupchen s nrrtive, lookg t it s n evitble, ner-driven, ologicl Buddhist terprettion trdition, but by understg it its very specific socil hisricl context, especilly s n ttempt construct worldview trnslted needs new, evolvg culture. Nupchen doxogrphies like Lmp centrl cretive trnsformtion Buddhism Tibetn Buddhism. Fundg: This reserch received no externl fundg. Acknowledgments: I wnt thnk four reviewers, who kdly red my rticle fered vluble feedbck. I lso wnt thnk Jenifer Hu for ll her help durg editg process. Conflicts Interest: The uthor declres no conflict terest. References Notes Primry Sources Dpl dbyngs (Pelyng). Thugs kyi sgron m (Lmp Md). P5918. Gnubs chen Sngs rgys ye shes. 1974. Rnl byor mig gi bsm gtn, or, Bsm gtn mig sgron: Tretise on Bhāvn Dhyān Reltionships between Vrious Approches Buddhist Contempltive Prctice. Edited by S. W. Tshigngp. Leh: Smnrtsis shesrig spendzod. Gnubs chen Sngs rgys ye shes. 1999. Sngs rgys Ye shes r po che i Lo rgyus gnubs kyi bk shog chen mo (vol. 42 Bk m sh tu rgys p). Chengdu: kh thog mkhn po jm dbyngs. Gnubs chen Sngs rgys ye shes. Mun p i go ch (Sngs rgys thms cd dgongs p dus p mdo i dk grel mun p I go ch lde mig gsl byed ml byor nyi m). In Rnyg m bk rn rgys p, vols. 50 51. Gu ru bkr shis. 1990. Gu ru bkr shis chos byung (Bstn p i snyg po gsng chen sng gyur nges don zb mo i chos kyi byung b gsl br byed p i legs mkhs p dg byed ngo mtshr gtm gyi rol mtsho). Beijg: Krung go i bod kyi shes rig dpe skrun khng, p. W20916. Kmlśīl, Bhāvnākrm. Tibetn & Snskrit Sgom rim thog mth br gsum bzhugs so/km l śī ls mdzd. Leh, Ldkh: Dpl n lendr i chos tshogs ns pr du bskrun, 2006. Pdmsmbhv. Mn ngg lt b i phreng b (Grl Views). In Selected Writgs (gsuṇ thor bu) Roṇ-zom Chos-kyi-bzṇ-po. Edited by Khor-gdon Gter-sprul Chi-med-rig Bibliogrphy 589 dz. Smnrtsis shesrig spendzod, v.73. Leh: S.W. Tshigngp, 1974. vol. 1, pp. 1 18. Vilāsvjr. dpl gsng b snyg po i grel p r po che i spr khb slob dpon sgeg p i rdo rjes mdzd p (spr khb). In Commentries on Guhygrbh tntr or rre Nygmp from librry Dudjom Rpoche. New Delhi: Snje Dorje, 1974. vol. 1, pp. 1 222. Secondry Sources Buswell, Robert E. 2004. Encyclopedi Buddhism. Frmgn Hills: Gle, Cengge Lerng. Buswell, Robert E., Donld S. Lopez, Donld S. Lopez. 2014. The Prcen Dictionry Buddhism. Prcen: Prcen University Press. Cntwell, Cthy. 1997. To Meditte upon Consciousness s Vjr: Ritul killg Libertion rnyg-m-p Trdition. In Tibetn Studies, Volume 1: Proceedgs 7th Semr Interntionl Assocition for Tibetn Studies, Grz, 1995. Wien: Verlg der Österreichischen Akdemie der Wissenschften. 108 (Smith 1987, p. 14).
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