Chapter I Vedic Literature The Vedas are the oldest scriptures of India. They are the seeds, from which the huge tree of Indian thought has evolved. The aspects such as philosophy, ritualism, society, culture, etc. are developed from the great Vedas. The four-fold values of life Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksa constitute the essential message of the Vedas. Meaning of the word *Veda' The word Veda is derived from the root ^Vid', which means 'to know'. Thus the word Veda means wisdom. The Vedas are the treasure of wisdom, which revealed by the sages. According to Sanskrit grammar the word Veda derives from four roots in four meanings. They are vid sattayam, vid jnane, vid vicarane and vidlr labhe, and their meanings are existence, knowledge, distinction and attainment respectively. It is through the Vedas the existence of Purusarthas can be Kapil Dev Dvivedi, Vaidik Sahitya Evam Samskriti, p.l.
established The Vedas provide the knowledge of the Purusarthas, describe the ways to moksa and finally they help to attain moksa, the ultimate goal of life. Sayana defines the Veda as the text which provides the non-worldly means to attain what is good for one and to avoid what is bad to one. Sayana also establishes the validity of the Vedas. The Vedas are the means to gain the knowledge which is not available through perception and inference. Thus the word Veda' indicates knowledge. The knowledge includes both of worldly and non-worldly aspects. The words such as Sruti, Agama, Trayi, Chandah, Amnaya, Svadhyaya, etc. are synonyms of the word Veda. %r^ w^ ^n^ ^W* ^^^WiffrT %^g I Vishnumitra, Rkpratisakhya vyakhya. Sayana, Taittiriyasamhitabhasyabhumika. lt;f M^ ^ CTHR: ^f^^ %^rtt I Sayana, Taittiriyasamhitabhasyabhumika.
Origin of the Vedas The Vedas are regarded as the earliest written document of humans. It is believed that humans did not compose the revered compositions of the Vedas, which were transmitted through generations by the word of mouth from time immemorial. The general assumption is that the Vedic hymns were either taught by God to the sages or that they were revealed themselves to the sages who were the seers (mantradrasta) of the hymns. Most of Indians like to consider the Vedas as the gift of God and as eternal. The traditional teachers of Indian thought had not made any conflict on the matter of the origin of the Vedas because they believed the Vedas as the creation of God and not of men. So when the creation begun then God created the Vedas. The western scholars and modem Indian thinkers made attempts to find the date of the Vedas. Views of the traditional teachers The traditional teachers call the Vedas as ^Apauruseya\ which means that not a creation of man. They were not engaged in the investigation of date of the Vedas and they
11 gave more relevance to understand the teachings of the Vedas. According to the traditional teachers like Saunaka, Sayana, Vyasa, Mahidhara, Yaska, etc. the Vedas are beginning less. Views of the modern scholars The western scholars like H. Jacobi, M. Wintemitz, Max MuUer, etc. and the modem Indian scholars like Balagangadhara Tilak, Avinashchandradas, etc. made attempts to determine the origin of the Vedas. The famous German scholar H. Jacobi made an attempt to fix the date of the Vedas by the astronomical evidences. In the description of the marriage ceremony in the Vedas, there is a system of seeing the star dhniva is described. The star moves backward from its place usually. Based on the calculation of the movement of the star H. Jacobi fixed the date of the Vedas as B.C. 4500. M. Wintemitz fixed the age of the Vedas in between B.C. 2500 - B.C. 500^ Max Muller made an attempt to find out the date of the Vedas based on the history of Buddhism. The rituals in the > Kapil Dev Dvivedi, Vaidik Sahitya Evam Samskriti, p.42. History of Indian Literature, Vol.1, p.290-310.
12 Vedas which caused pain were defended by Buddha. Max MuUer described four stages of development of the Vedas Viz; 1) Chandahkala B.C. 1200-1000, 2) Mantrakala B.C. 1000-800, 3) Brahmanakala B.C. 800-600, and 4) Sutrakala B.C.600-400. The first stage is the age of creation of hymns in the Vedas. The second denotes the age of creation of Samhitas. The third is the age of creation of Brahmanas and r _ 7 the last one is the stage of Srautasutras and other sutras. Avinashchandradas, a famous Indian thinker, based on the geographical data fixed the date of the Vedas as before B.C. 25000. He says, there is a hymn in the Rgveda which mentions the river Sarasvati which begins from the mountain o Himalaya and ends in the sea. Thousands of years ago the sea was in Rajasthan. Now the river Sarasvathi and the sea are disappeared from there. The date of this appearance of these two is calculated as B.C. 25000. So Rgveda must be made before B.C.25000. Kapil Dev Dvivedi, Vaidik Sahitya Evam Samskriti, p.42. ^chl^drl ^<Wdl ^^ ^fmrt P#K[T3TT '^^J^ I Rgveda,8.95.2.
13 Balagangadhara Tilak made an attempt based on the astronomical evidences. According to him the Vedas were composed between B.C. 6000- B.C. 4000. Based on the aspect of vernal equinox in different stars he classified the stages of development of the Vedas into four. They are; 1) Aditikala B.C. 6000-4000, 2) Mrgasirakala B.C. 4000-2500, 3) Krttikakala B.C. 2500-1400, and 4) Sutrakala B.C. 1400-500^ The modem scholars who attempted to find the date of the Vedas provide different opinions and they reached in different conclusions. Thus the assumption of the date of the Vedas between B.C.6000- B.C. 1000 will be a general conclusion on this matter. Structure of the Vedas The Vedas are four in number. They are Rgveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. Rgveda means the Veda of adoration and mostly contains verse adoring deities. Yajurveda is the Veda of Yajiia or sacrifice. It refers to acts of worship such as oblations made into Agni. Samaveda consists Kapil Dev Dvivedi, Vaidik Sahitya Evam Samskriti, p.40.
14 of a selection of poetry mainly from Rgveda, and some original matter. Atharvaveda means the Veda of the wise and the old. Considering the four Vedas there are four types of Priests (^[fept) related to each Veda. They are the Hota, the Advaryu, the Udgata and the Brahma respectively. The Hota chants the verses from Rgveda, on the occasion of the sacrifices. The Advaryu performs the sacrifice with the instructions of Yajus. The Udgata sings the songs of Sama and the Brahma is the instructor of the sacrifice. Each Veda consists of four parts- Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanisads. Samhitas are the collection of mantras. Brahmanas are the ritualistic texts. Aranyakas and Upanisads are the concluding portions and they mostly discuss philosophical matters. Besides these four portions Vedangas should be considered in order to get the whole picture of Vedic literature. Vedangas are Siksa, Kalpa, Nirukta, Vyakarana, Chandah and Jyotisa. Based on the subject matter the whole content of the Veda is divided into two, Karmakanda and Jhanakanda. The hymns and prayers of Samhitas and the descriptions of rituals, sacrifices, etc. in Brahmanas are come
15 under the first division. The philosophical speculations in Brahmanas and Aranyakas and especially Upanisads come under the second division. Samhitas Samhitas constitute the first part of the Vedas. Each Veda has Samhitas. Samhitas is generally called as the collection of mantras, prayers and songs. Meaning of the word Samhita The word ^Samhita' means association or compilation. Samhita is the portion of the Veda, where the prayers and songs are associated and compiled. The mantras in Samhitas are compiled under the title suktas. A sukta is a group of mantras. Each sukta has particular Rsi, devata, artha and chandah. Rsi is the seer of the mantra. Devata is the deity devoted by the sukta. Artha is the aim of the mantra. Chandah is the metre of the sukta. 0 Gajanan Sastri, Vaidik Sahitya ka Ithihas, p.49. d^cjdmife^^ Iter ^:f^ "^m^ I ^[^^cki g ^rraf^ ^^TTT^^ %^i Gajanan Sastri, Vaidik Sahitya ka Ithihas, p.51.
16 Sakha The term ^Sakha' MteraWy means ^branch' and it is used to refer either to a school of the Vedas or to the traditional text followed by a school. The Vedic mantras used to be handled down by oral tradition. What the teacher would chant, the student had to attentively listen and repeat. Because of this oral transmission of the mantras some minor alterations and re-adjustments were made. The alterations were also made in order to suit local or ritualistic mode. Such modified form came to be known as Sakha. An individual follower of a particular school or recension is called as Sakhin, a follower'. Rgvedasamhita Among the four Vedas Rgveda possesses the prominent place. The knower of Rgveda is regarded more prominent than the knower of other Vedas. The mantras in this Veda are used to be chant in most of the sacrifices. Rgvedasamhita is the oldest Samhita, which contains 1017 hymns. If the khilas included then the number of hymns will be 1028. Rk is the medium through which the deities can
17 12 be devoted. The relevance of the Rk is mentioned in the Taittiriya Samhita as, the sacrifice which is made without the use of Rk, it becomes lost and which is made with use of Rk it becomes great. Structure of Rgvedasamhita In Rgvedasamhita there are 1017 suktas, 2006 vargas, sixty four adhyayas, ten mandalas, eight astakas and eighty five anuvakas. Eight adhyayas constitute one astaka. A group of mantras called as varga, and the group of varga is called as an adhyaya. There are two kinds of arrangement of Rgvedasamhita; Astaka arrangement and Mandala arrangement. Astaka means the collection of eight adhyayas. There are sixty four adhyayas in Rgvedasamhita and therefore eight W^ "^^ ^o m^\ ^ ^^ I Jaiminiya Nyaya Bhasyam,2.1.12. c!^ % q5r?t^ttht ^7^ fl^^ f^lf^?k ^ ^[^ ^ ^ I Taittiriya Samhita, 6.5.10.3. Gajanan Sastri, Vaidik Sahitya ka Ithihas, p.53.
astakas. A subdivision of one adhyaya is called as varga. There are 2006 vargas in Rgvedasammhita. Thus there are eight astakas, sixty four adhyayas, 2006 vargas and 10,552 mantras in Rgvedasamhita. In mandala type of arrangement the mantras are arranged in ten mandalas. The sage Sakala said to be made this kind of arrangement. Each mandala contains various anuvakas. Each anuvaka contains various hymns. Similarly each hymn contains various mantras. There are totally eighty five anuvakas, subdivision in ten mandalas. The total number of mantras is 10,552. Thus there are ten mandalas, eighty five anuvakas, 1028 hymns and 10,552 mantras in Rgveda Samhita. Sakhas of Rgveda According to Patanjali there are twenty one sakhas of Rgveda. But the titles of all sakhas are not available now. According to Saunaka there are five important sakhas of the 5 Mahabhasyam, Ahnikam 1.
19 Rgveda. They are Sakala, Baskala, Asvalayana, Sahkhayana and MandQkayana. Yajurveda Samhita Yajurveda Samhita is the collection of Yajus, which is used by the adhvaryu at the time of sacrifices. It contains descriptions of ritualistic performances of sacrifices. Meaning of tlie word Yajus The word *Yajus' is interpreted in various ways. According to Yaska, Yajus is the mantras related to sacrifice. According to Sayana, Yajus are the mantras by which the sacrifice is performed. The priest adhvaryu represents the Yajurveda and leads the sacrifice. Jaimini the founder of ^TRsJTT^^MFTfr t^ w^^ o ciibch^iw8it I ^^^ 'm^ o ^ qolf^ frchciirng i i Caranavyuha, p.24. ^ q^4^g I Nirukta, 7.12. ^ ai^^hhch ^ ^fen: m^ ^^r^ f^^q^^ 13i^ ^^rf^ 3I^ZR^ ^ I Sayana,Rgvedabhasyabhumika.
20 purvamimamsa mentions Yajus as the mantra which is different from padya (poetic) and giti (song). Thus the word Yajus means the mantras which are used by advaryu in sacrifices and which are in prose order different from poetic Rgvedic mantras and from Samas. The relevance of the Yajurveda is mentioned by Sayana by saying ^Yajurveda is the wall, where a beautiful picture of Rgveda and Samaveda is made'^^. Structure of Yajurveda Yajurveda is divided into two; Krsnayajurveda and Suklayajurveda. There are also two systems, Brahma system and Aditya system related to these two respectively. Both samhitas contain the verses necessary for rituals, but the former has additional commentary and detailed instructions within the work itself. ^ ^5T^g I Purvamimamsasutram,2.9.37. Sayana,Taittiriyabhasyabhumika. ^ 3^lR^Ml^)HlPl ^j^t#t ^:r3jp[ CJM^^^H ^i5ici^ 3^lteMN'Tl Satapathabrahmana, 14.9.4.33.
21 There is a traditional story related to these two divisions of Yajurveda. Vaisampayana was a teacher of the Veda and he had a pupil named Yajnavalkya. The pupil was very intelligent and he learnt any thing with just single teaching. The teacher and pupil came to have serious differences in interpretations. On one occasion Vaisampayana became very angry and demanded the return of all the knowledge he has imparted to Yajnavalkya. Yajnavalkya vomited all the knowledge he had learnt. The other pupils of Vaisampayana, eager to receive the knowledge, assumed the form of tittiri birds and ate that. Thus, the knowledge came to be called as the Taittiriyasamhita. Later Yajnavalkya worshipped Surya and acquired new knowledge directly from Narayana, who preached Suklayajurveda by taking the shape of a stallion {Vajirupa). Sakhas of Yajurveda Pataiijali mentions one hundred sakhas of Yajurveda. According to Saunaka there are eighty six sakhas. Among them twelve are called as Carakasakha, seven are called as it^sm^^^^tritg I Mahabhasya, Ahnika, 1.
22 Maitrayaniyasakha, seventeen are called as Vajasaneyasakha, six are called as Taittitiriyasakha and forty four are called as Kathasakha. Now there only six sakhas of Yajurveda are available. They are, Madhyantina and Kanva of Suklayajurveda, and Taittiriya, Maitrayaniya, Kathaka and Kapisthalakatha of Krsnayajurveda. Vaj asaneyisamhita Vajasaneyisamhita is the most popular samhita of Yajurveda. Yajnavalkya learned it from Vaji so it is called so and he learned it at noon and so it is called as Madhyantinasakha. There are forty adhyayas, three hundred and three anuvakas, 1675 kandikas and 1975 mantras in it. It consists of both poetry and prose. Kanvasamhita Kanvasamhita is the second samhita of Sukjayajurveda, preached or propagated by Kanva. It consists of forty adhyayas, three hundred and twenty eight anuvakas and 2086 3 Caranavyuha.2.
23 mantras. The last chapter of this samhita constitutes the famous Isavasyopanisad. Taittiriyasamhita This is the most popular samhita among the samhitas of Krsnayajurveda. There are seven khandas, forty four prapathakas, six hundred and thirty one anuvakas and 2168 kandikas in it. Maitrayan iyasamhita Maitrayaniyasamhita is a mixture of prose and poetry. Sage Maitreya is said to be the propagator of this samhita. There are four kandas, fifty four prapathakas and 2144 mantras in it. It is also called as Kalapa or Kalapakasamhita. Kathasamhita Kathasamhita consist of five khandas, forty sthanakas, eight hundred and forty three anuvakas and 3091 mantras. Kapisthalakathasamhita A sage named Kapisthala is said to be the propagator of this samhita. This samhita is not fiilly available now and it is arranged in the form of astakas.
24 Samavedasamhita Samavedasamhita is the collection of hymns to be chanted by the udgata priests at the performance of sacrifice. The collection is made up of hymns and portions of hymns, taken mainly from the Rgveda. The verses are not intended to be chanted, but to be sung in specifically indicated melodies. Such songs are called Samagana and in this sense the Samaveda is really a book of hymns. Meaning of the word 'Saman' The word *saman' denotes hymns to be chanted in specific manner. According to Jaimini song is saman. The Rgveda hymns when chanted with specific svara then it become saman. BrUp. and Ch.Up. mention this meaning of the word saman. Purvamimamsasutra,II.I.36. Br.Up.,I.III.22. Ch.Up., I.III.4.
25 Sructure of Samaveda Samavedasamhita is classified into two; Purvarcika and Uttararcika. The word 'arcika', means the collection of Rgvedic verses. Purvarcika consists of six prapathakas or adhyayas and six hundred and fifty mantras. Uttararcika consists of nine prapathakas, four hundred hymns and 1225 mantras. The total number of the mantras in Samaveda is 1875, 650 of Purvarcika and 1225 of Uttararcika. The number of mantras which are associated with Rgveda is 1771. Thus there are only 104 new or original mantras in Samaveda. Sakhas of Samaveda Patanjali in his Mahabhasya mentions 1000 sakhas of Samaveda. According to Saunaka there were 1000 sakhas, but they were destroyed by Indra when they studied by the 27 pupils on the day of Anadhyaya, Now there only three Mahabhasya, Ahnika,l. Caranavyuha,3.1.
26 sakhas of this Veda are popular. They are, Kauthumiya, Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya. Samhitas of Samaveda The existing samhitas of Samaveda are, Kauthumiyasamhita, Ranayaniyasamhita and Jaimin i yasamhita. Kauthumiyasamhita Kauthumiyasamhita is the most popular among the samhitas of Samaveda. It consists of two parts; Purvarcika and Uttararcika. In Purvarcika there are four parvas; Agneya, Aindra, Pavamana and Aranyaka, and six prapathakas. Uttararcika contains nine prapathakas. Ranayaniyasamhita There is no real distinction between Kauthumiyasamhita and Ranayaniyasamhita. The mantras in both the samhitas are same but only in the classification of the mantras they differ. The mantras in this samhita are classified into prapathakas, ardhaprapathakas, dasati and mantra.
27 Jaiminiyasamhita Jaiminiyasamhita is the third existing samhita of Samaveda and it contains 1687 mantras. This samhita is very different from above mentioned two. Atharvaveda Atharvaveda is the fourth Veda, which is known by the name of Atharvan, the seer of the mantras. It is also known by the names such as Brahmaveda, Angiroveda, Atharvangirasveda, Bhaisajyaveda, etc. Meaning of the word 'Atharva' The word 'Atharva' is mentioned in the Nirukta of Yaska and in Gopathabrahmama. According to Yaska the term Atharva is derived from the root 'tharva' (ST^) which means absence of movement. Thus the term Atharva means movementless or stable, and it indicates the yoga described in the Veda, which stables the human mind. Gopathabrahmana describes the term 'Atharva' as the summarized form of the term 'Atharvak', which means the 3T2I^f452^c[(J(c<^g (ST#r&rK[^ch^ d^frlms^g I Nirukta, 11.18.
28 29 realization of Atman which is near. Atharvaveda advocates the theory, through which one can realize Atman. Sakhas of Atharvaveda Pataiijali mentions nine sakhas of Atharvaveda. Saunaka also mentions nine. They are, Paippala, Saunaka, Danta, Pradanta, Auta, Jabala, Brahmapalasa, Kunakhivedadarsi and Caranavidya. Sayana in his Atharvavedabhasyabhumika also mentions nine sakhas of the Atharvaveda, but the names are different from the Caranavyuha. They are, Paippalada, Tauda, Manda, Saunakiya, Jajala, Jalada, Brahmavmda, Devadarsa and 1 32 ' ~ Caranavaidya. Now there only exist; Saunakiya and Paippalada. ^ 3m 31^ q^ ^[^ti^iri?t^ ^ ^m^ OT?Traf^ 4H^dl^ 31^ 3#T^^ I Gopathabrahmana,1.14. ^ ^TcraT55?jW ^ I Mahabhasya, Ahnika,! ^ ^^3MTg #I^j^RTTg I Caranavyuha,4.2. Sayana, Atharvavedabhasyabhumika, 10.7.20
29 Samhitas of Atharvaveda Saunakiya and Paippalada are the available two samhitas of the Atharvaveda. Saunakiyasamhita It is the most popular samhita of Atharvaveda and it consists of twenty kandas, thirty six prapathakas, seven hundred and thirty suktas and 5987 mantras. The famous Gopathabrahmana is associated with this samhita. Paippaladasamhita Paippaladasamhita, which is also known as Pippalada contains twenty kandas. Pavamanasukta is one of the popular suktas of this samhita. Brahmanas Brahmanas constitute the second portion of the Vedas. They are the continuation of samhitas and mostly composed in prose order. Samhitas and Brahmanas are not distinct part of the Veda and they are related each other. Meaning of the term 'Brahmana' The term 'Brahmana' denotes different meanings in different contexts. When it used in association with the Veda
30 then it is neutral gender. There are several meanings of the word 'Brahmanas'. One of its meanings is mantra. Satapathabrahmana also mentions another meaning of the word that is 'Yajna', the sacrifice. Thus it means that Brahmana is the explanation of mantras and sacrifices. The word also indicates the sacred knowledge. Contents of Brahmanas The description of the sacrifice is the central aspect of Brahmanas. Starting with the description of Agnihotra, they describe various sacrifices like Darsapurnamasa, Caturmasya, Somayaga, etc. They also define the auspicious time for sacrifices, instruments for the sacrifices and directions for the sacrifices. Sabaraswami defines ten essential characteristics of Brahmanas. They are, Hetu, Nirvacana, Ninda, Prasamsa, Samsaya, Vidhi, Parakriya, Purakalpa, Vyavadharanakalpana mm ^m^\^ ^Wt n^^cbn. I Medinikosa. WT ^ 'T^ I Satapathabrahmana,?. 1.1.5. ^^ q^g I Satapathabrahmana,3.1.4.15.
31 and Upamana. Hetu is the description of the cause for the sacrifice. Nirvacana is the derivation of the words. Ninda is the discouragement of the forbidden acts. Prasamsa is the encouragement of the good acts. Samsaya is the clarification of doubts. Vidhi is the direction and order of rites in sacrifices. Paraknya is the description of goodness of the sub-ordinate rites in main sacrifice. Purakalpa is the description of historical incidents and stories. Vyavadharanakalpana is the arrangement of the instruments and objects in the sacrifice according to the circumstances. Upamana is the example. The Brahmanas not only contain description and directions of the sacrifices but also contain philosophical matters. Number of Brahmanas Brahmana literature is very vast. Due to various sakhas there are various Brahmanas. Most of the Brahmanas are lost, but we can infer the vastness of Brahmana literature even by the available Brahmanas. Names of Brahmanas are available 6 Igf^^ f^ g^m ^$T^ f^ I M<i^i l 5^^^ ^q^kuicb^hi I ^MHH ^tf^ 5 ^fwift % I Mimamsmsutra, Sabarabhasya, 2.18.
32 from the srauta texts. Now totally fourteen Brahmanas are available. Two Brahmanas belong to Rgveda, two Brahmanas belong to Yajurveda, nine Brahmanas belong to Samaveda and one Brahmana belongs to Atharvaveda. Brahmanas of Rgveda r _ Aitareya and Sankhayana are the two Brahmanas of Rgveda. Former is known by the name of the sage Mahidasa r _ Aitareya and latter by the name of the sage Sankhayana. Aitareyabrahmana consists of forty adhyayas, eight pancikas and two hundred and sixty eight kandikas. r Sankhayanabrahmana consists of thirty adhyayas and two hundred and twenty six khandas. Brahmanas of Yajurveda Taittiya and Satapatha are the two Brahmanas of Yajurveda. Taittiriya belongs to Krsnayajurveda and it contains three kandas and twenty adhyayas. r r Satapathabrahmana belongs to Sukjayajurveda and its both Madhyantina and Kanva recentions are available. Madhyantina Satapathabrahmana consists of fourteen kandas, one thousand adhyayas, sixty eight prapathakas and four
33 hundred and thirty eight Brahmanas. Kanva Satapathabrahmana consists of seventeen kandas, one hundred and four adhyayas, four hundred and thirty five brahmanas and 6806 kandikas. The famous Br. Up. constitutes the concluding part of Satapathabrahmana. Brahmanas of Samaveda Brahmanas of Samaveda are, Tandya- mahabrahmana, Sadvimsabrahmana, Samavidhanabrahmana, Arseya brahmana, Devatadhyayabrahmana, Upanisad- brahmana, Samhitopamsadbrahmana, Vamsabrahmana and Jaiminiya or Talavakarabrahmana. The first eight brahmanas belong to Kauthumasakha and Talavakara belongs to Ranayaniyasakha. Brahmana of Atharvaveda Gopathabrahmana is the only one Brahmana of Atharvaveda and it belongs to Paippaladasakha. It has two parts; Purvagopatha and Uttaragopatha and former consists of five prapathakas and one hundred and thirty five kandikas and the latter consists of six prapathakas and one hundred and twenty three kandikas.
34 Aranyakas In the Vedic literature Aranyakas are placed between Brahmanas and Upanisads. They generally regarded as the %rest texts', which meant for the people who retired from the worldly life. They contain description of mystic and symbolical interpretations of the rituals. Aranyakas form the appendixes of Brahmanas, and some of Upanisads are included in Aranyakas. Number of Aranyakas Now there six Aranyakas are familiar to us. Once number of Aranyakas was large, as years passed most of them lost to us. Among the six Aranyakas two belong to Rgveda, they are Aitareyaranyaka (AA) and Sahkhayanaranyaka (SA), three belong to Yajurveda, they are, Brhadaranyaka of Suklayajurveda, Taittiriyaranyaka and Maitrayaniyaranyaka of Krsnayajurveda and one belongs to Samaveda, it is Talavakararanyaka. There is no Aranyaka belonged to Atharvaveda.
35 Upanisads Upanisads are the concluding portions of the Vedas. They are known as the essence of the Vedas, which reveal the ultimate aim of human life. Most of the Upanisads are in the form of conversation between teacher and pupil, which destructs ignorance of the pupil by providing right knowledge and empower him to realize the ultimate reality. Meaning of the term 'Upanisad' The word *Upanisad' derives from the root *sad' (^ when associated with upasarga 'upa ^ ( OT ) and ^z ^ ( f^ ) and the pratyaya 'kvip' ( f^^. It means sitting of a pupil near a teacher in order to attain the sacred knowledge. r r Sri Sankara describes the term Upanisad as the brahmavidya, the knowledge of Brahman. He defined the meaning of the term in three ways, which conclude at one and same end. The root ^sad^ has three different meanings. They are Wisarana\ 'gati' and *avasadana\ ^Visarana^ means Sankara s commentary on Kathopanisad, Introduction.
36 destruction, 'gati' means attainment and 'avasadana^ means removal. Upanisads destruct avidya, the nescience, which is the cause of the universe of mystery. It is through Upanisads one can realize Brahman, and attain the ultimate goal of life. Upanisads remove the sorrows of man. Thus Upanisads are the sacred texts which produce right knowledge, which empower one to realize the reality and to overcome the miseries of life. Number of Upanisads The scholars have different opinions about the number of Upanisads. According to Muktikopanisad the number of Upanisads is one hundred and eight. Among them ten are regarded as the most authoritative Upanisads and famous philosophers made commentaries on them. They are, Tsavasyopanisad, Kenopanisad, Kathopanisad, Prasnopanisad, Mundakopanisad, Mandukyopanisad, Taittiriyopanisad, Aitareyopanisad, Chandogyopanisad (Ch.Up.) and Brhadaranyakopanisad (Br.Up.). Following are Upanisads 38 8 which belong to the four Vedas. Muktikopanisad, 1.30.
37 Upanisads of Rgveda There are ten Upanisads related to the Rgveda. They are, Aksamahka, Atmabodha, Aitareya, Kausitaki, Tripura, Nadabindu, Nirvana, Mugdala, Bahrca and Saubhagya. Upanisads of Suklayajurveda There are nineteen Upanisads related to Suklayajurveda. r Atitadhyatma, Tsavasya, Yavalam, Tarasara, Turiyam, Trisikhi, Niralambam, Paramahamsa, Paingalam, Bhiksu, Mantrika, Brahmanamandalam, Brahmanadvayatarakam, Muktika, Yajiiavalkya, Brhadaranyaka, Sayyayani, Subala and Hamsa. Upanisads of Krsnayajurveda There are thirty two Upanisads related to Krsnayajurveda. Aksi, Amrtanada, Amrtabindu, Avadhuta, Ekaksara, Katharudra, Kathavalli, Kalisantaranam, Kalagnirudra, Kaivalya, Ksurika, Garbha, Tejobindu, Taittiriya, Daksinamurti, Dhyanabindu, Narayana, Paficabrahmana, Pranagnihotra, Brahma, Brahmavidya, Yogakundalini, Yogatatvam, Yogasikha, Varaha, Sarirakam,
38 Sukarahasyam, Sarvasara, Svetasvatara, Skanda, Sarasvatirahasya and Hrdaya. Upanisads of Samaveda There are sixteen Upanisads related to Samaveda, They are, Avyakta, Aruni, Kundika, Kena, Chandogya, Jabaladarsana, Javali, Mahat, Maitrayani, Rudraksa, Vajrasucika, Vasudeva, Sanyasa and Savitri, Upanisads of Atharvaveda There are thirty one Upanisads related to Atharvaveda, They are, Atharvasikha, Atharvasira, Krsna, Ganapati, Garuda, Gopalatapana, Javala, Tripuratapana, Dattatreya, Devi, Naradaparivracaka, Paramahamsa, Pasupatam, Bhasma, Bhavana, Mahanarayana, Mahavakya, Mandukya, Mundaka, Ramatapani, Ramarahasyam, Brhajjabalam, Sarabha, Sandilya, Sita, Suryatma, Hayagriva and Parabrahma. Vedangas The Vedic literature which begins from Samhitas and ends with Upanisads is called as Sruti, which is transmitted to generation by oral tradition. But the limit of the Vedic literature should not be considered as Upanisads, and it should
39 be extended to Vedangas and allied works because it is impossible to understand the meaning of the Vedas without them. So Vedangas are auxiliaries to the Vedas through which the essence of the Vedas to be realized. So they posses a significant place in Vedic literature.the significance of Vedangas is mentioned by Panini that a brahmin must be studied and understood the Vedas along with the six 39 Vedangas. Number of Vedangas Vedangas are six in number. They are Siksa, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandah and Jyotisa. It is poetically mentioned by Panini in his Siksa. Chandah are the legs of the Vedas, by which the mantras are chanted and transmitted to generations. Kalpa are the hands of the Vedas, by which the definite meanings and directions in the Vedas can be understood. Jyotisa is the eye of the Vedas, by which the ^ n^t^ ^[#Tr'^5#qt %^k^^ l Mahabhasya, Ahnika,l _ / _ Paniniya Siksa.
40 specific time for the sacrifices to be determined. Nirukta is the ear of the Vedas, by which the essential meaning of the Vedic terms can be understood. Vyakarana is the mouth of the Veda, by which one can determine which is right word and which is wrong word. Thus each Vedanga has its own peculiarity and they serve as a unit to illuminate the nature of the Vedas. Siksa Siksa is regarded as the first among the Vedangas because it describes how to pronounce hymns and mantras. Sayana defines Siksa as, where the pronunciation of accents and syllables are taught it is Siksa'^^ Siksa deals with the traditional science of phonetics and phonology in Sanskrit. The oldest phonetic books are called as ^Pratisakhyas'. They describe pronunciation, intonation of Sanskrit as well as the rules of sandhi. There are five Pratisakhyas preserved. They are; Rgvedapratisakhya, Sukjayajurvedapratisakhya, Taittiriyapratisakhya, Atharvaveda- pratisakhya and Sayana, Rgvedabhasyabhumika,p.49.
41 Saunakiyapratisakhya. The Paniniyasiksa, Bharadvajasiksa, etc. are the popular siksa texts. Kalpa Kalpa is one of the Vedangas and it defines the rules of the performance of sacrifices. It is composed in sutra style. There are four types of Kalpasutras: Srautasutras, Grhyasutras, Dharmasutras and Sulbasutras. Srautasutras are based on the Sruti and teach the performance of the great sacrifices like Darsapurnamasa, Somayaga, Rajasuya etc. Grhyasutras are the domestic rules which treat ordinary family rites, such as marriage, birth, name giving etc. Dharmasutras deal with the customs and temporal duties. Sulbasutras deal with the measurement by means of cords, and the construction of different kinds of altars required for sacrifices. Vyakarana Vyakarana is the Vedanga, by which the sounds and words are determined and clarified. It deals with the origin of 2 Sayana, Rgvedabhasyabhumika,p.49.
42 word and determination of root and suffix. Vyakarana of Panini is the only one authoritative Vedangavyakarana. It is called as Astadhyayi. It is the comprehensive work on vyakarana, in which the rules and explanation of grammar described in 3997 sutras. Katyayana, another great grammarian wrote Varttikas on Astadhyayi and Patafijali wrote Bhasya on both the sutras and the Varttikas. Nirukta Nirukta is one of the Vedangas, treating etymology, particularly of obscure words occurring in the Vedas. This discipline is traditionally attributed to Yaska. Nirukta consists of brief rules for deriving word meanings, supplemented with glossaries of difficult or rare Vedic words. Nirukta text of Yaska consists of twelve main chapters and at the end there are two chapters, which are called Parisista. Chandah Chandah, the Vedanga deals with Vedic meter. Katyayana defines chandah as Vhere the number of the
43 syllables defined it is chandah. The Rgpratisakhya, the Sahkhayanasrautasutra and the Nidanasutra in the Samaveda contain the theoretical descriptions of chandah. The Chandahsutra of Pingala is the most popular text on the science of meter, which includes both the Vedic meters and non-vedic meters, Gayatri, Usnik, Anustup, Brhati, Trstup, Jagati, etc. are the popular meters in the Vedas. Jyotisa Jyotisa is the Vedanga, which determines the auspicious time for the performance of sacrifices. It is also deals with the calculations of days, months, years and seasons. It is a tool to calculate the movement and position of moon, planets and stars. The oldest and authoritative text on jyotisa is the Vedangajyotisa of Lagada. These are the six Vedangas. Beside these six there is also a collection of literary works which is called as Sarvanukramani. It is a list which describes the first syllable of particular mantra, its seer rsi, its meter, its deity, etc. There are separate anukramanis related to different Vedas. 3 Katyayana, Sarvanukramani, 12.6.
44 Anukramani of Saunaka and Sarvanukramni of Katyayana are the most popular anukramanis. Resume The Vedas, the oldest treatises in the world are treasures of various kinds of knowledge. Any enquiry of any subject relating to ancient India must be started from study of the Vedas. They also show implications of modem subjects such as physical science, health science, social science, mathematics, astronomy, etc. The four portions of the Vedas are Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanisads, in which the knowledge is installed. According to the tradition of India the study of the whole Vedas is necessary for a bright life of a man. But it is not an easy task for an ordinary person. So it is necessary to make an attempt to study at least one aspect from the great Vedas.