Muslim Gunpowder Empires Ottoman, Safavid and the Mughal Formation of the Islamic Empires Islamic empires originated as small warrior principalities in frontier areas / expanded at varying rates and with varying degrees of success at the expense of neighboring states / devised elaborate administrative and military institutions / had talented and energetic rulers / each empire organized an effective governmental apparatus and presided over a prosperous society. The Ottoman Empire Unusually successful frontier state / continued in unbroken success from 1289 until its dissolution in 1923: Founder Osman leader of a semi-nomadic band of Turks / he and his followers sought to become ghazi, Muslim religious warriors: Expansion Located on the borders of the Byzantine empire afforded an opportunity to wage holy war / first success 1326 captured city of Bursa became the capital of the Ottoman principality: 1352 established a foothold in Europe / seized Gallipoli / numerous ghazi now joined the Ottoman forces: Formidable military machine drove Ottoman expansion two forces light cavalry and a volunteer infantry / as the Ottoman state became more entrenched - added a professional cavalry equipped with heavy armor and financed with land grants. After their Balkan expansion created the supremely important force composed of slave troops the Janissaries: Devshirme an institution utilized by the Ottomans requiring the Christian population of the Balkans to contribute young boys to become slaves of the sultan received special training, learned Turkish, converted to Islam / by ability either entered the Ottoman civilian administration or the military these were the Janissaries. 1453 Ottomans conquered Constantinople under the leadership of Mehmed II (r. 1451-1481) became the new capital of the Ottoman state as Istanbul / critical location as a commercial center: Mehmed laid the foundations for a tightly centralized, absolute monarchy and his armies faced no rivals. Moved into southern Greece, Albania, conquered Serbia, eliminated the last Byzantine outpost and captured Genoese ports in the Crimea / initiated a naval war with Venice in the Mediterranean: Expansion continued in the early 16 th century Selim the Grim (r.1512-1520) occupied Syria and Egypt / height of Ottoman imperialism was under Suleiman the Magnificent (r.1520-1566) / promoted expansion in SW Asia and Europe / 1534 conquered Baghdad / 1521 he had captured Belgrade and kept the Hapsburg empire on the defensive / consolidated Ottoman power north of the Danube and in 1529, he lay siege to Vienna: Suleiman also created a formidable navy during his reign /inherited the navy of the Egyptian Mamluk rulers and built his own fleet in the Aegean and Black Sea regions / challenged the Christians vessels in the Mediterranean and Portuguese fleets in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean.
Safavid Empire Foundation 1499 Ismail enters the city of Tabriz with his army laid claim to the ancient Persian imperial title of shah / Shah Ismail (r.1501-15240 proclaimed the official religion to be Twelver Shi ism and proceeded to impose it with force, if necessary, on the formerly Sunni population / seized control of the Iranian Plateau, and launched expeditions into the Caucasus, Anatolia, Mesopotamia and Central Asia over a ten year period. Traced ancestry back to Safi al Din (r. 1252-1334), leader of a Sufi religious order in northwestern Persia / Safavids changed their religious preference on numerous occasions with the idea of gaining popular support / settled on Shi ism appealed to the nomadic Turkish tribes migrated tot eh region in the post-mongol period. Twlever Shi ism Held that there had been twelve infallible imams after Muhammad, beginning with the prophet s cousin Ali / the twelfth or hidden imam had gone into hiding around 874 to escape persecution / Shi ites believe that he was still alive and would return / Turkish followers had been instructed to wear a red hat with twelve pleats to represent the imams became known as the qizilbash ( red heads ) Ismail was propagandized by the Shi ties as the twelve imam or even a reincarnation of Allah / more representative of Turkish conceptions of leadership military leaders as divine / qizilbash believed that Ismail would make them invincible in battle-fanatic loyalty developed C/C / Ismail s blend of Turkish militancy and Shiism created a unique identity and some powerful enemies / Sunni Ottomans feared the Shi ite Safavids and their propaganda amongst the nomadic Turks in their own territory /Selim the Grim persecuted Shi ites in the Ottoman Empire and planned an attack on the Safavids. Battle of Chaldiran (1514) Ottomans heavy artillery and Janissary infantry / Safavids declined to use firearms, deeming them unreliable and unmanly / Ismail would protect them / qizilbash cavalry suffered devastating causalities / Ottomans temporarily occupied Tabriz / not enough resources to destroy the Safavid state / two empires remained in intermittent conflict next two centuries Ismail s Successors Recovered from the Battle of Chaldiran / relied more on Persian bureaucracy and administrative skills than Ismail. The successors also eliminated the extreme Safavid ideology that associated the emperor with Allah / favored conventional Twlever Shi ism derived legitimacy as descendants and representatives of the imams / also assigned land grants to the qizilbash officers successors were seeking their loyalty and gave them a stake in the regime s success. Shah Abbas the Great (r. 1588-1629) complete revitalization of the Safavid empire / moved capital Isfahan more centralized / encouraged trade with other lands / reformed the administration and military institutions / increased the use of gunpowder weapons / sought
European assistance against the Ottomans and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf: Shah Abbas defeated the Uzbeks in Central Asia / expelled the Portuguese from Hormuz / harassed the Ottomans from 1603 to the end of his reign / result northwestern Iran, the Caucusas, and Mesopotamia were under Safavid rule. Mughal Empire 1523 Zahir al Din Muhammad (Babur), a Chagatai Turk- claimed descent from Genghis Khan and Tamerlane arrived in India C/C Babur was simply an adventurer and soldier of fortune whereas the Ottomans sought to be renowned ghazis / the Safavids were champions of Shi ism: Babur s goal transform inheritance into glorious central Asian empire Turned to India when he was prevented from realizing his original goal. 1523 and 1525 invaded India / use of gunpowder weapons artillery and firearms / 1526- he captured Delhi / failed again to create a central Asian empire similar to other Mongol descendants / by the time of Babur s death loosely knit empire from Kabul to the Bay of Bengal founded the Mughal empire would expand to embrace the Indian subcontinent. Akbar (r. 1556-1605 Babur s grandson true architect of the empire / took complete control of the empire in 1561 did not tolerate any challenges to his rule / created a centralized administrative structure ministries regulated the various provinces of the empire: Consolidated Mughal rule in Gujarat and Bengal / destroyed the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar foundation for further southern expansion / pursued a policy of religious toleration hopes of reducing tensions Hindu and Muslim communities in India / focused on a syncretic religion -> divine faith attention on the emperor as a ruler common to all the religious, ethnic, and social groups of India. Aurangzeb (r. 1659-1707) Led the Mughal empire to its greatest extent / relentless effort push the empire into the deep south of subcontinent / 18 th century controlled all by the extreme southern tip of the Indian subcontinent: Faced rebellions / religious tensions Hindus and Muslims / devout Muslim broke with Akbar s policy of religious toleration / demolished Hindu temples replaced them with mosques / imposed a tax on Hindus to encourage conversion to Islam. Imperial Islamic Society Similarities of the gunpowder empires: bureaucracies with Turkish and Mongol traditions combined with Islamic heritage/ adopted similar economic policies / sought ways to maintain harmony in societies that included varying religious and ethnic traditions / rulers also tried to enhance their legitimacy by providing for public welfare and associating themselves with literary and artistic talent. The Dynastic State The Ottomans, Safavids and Mughals were all military creations regarded as the personal possessions of the rulers due to their conquest
/ rulers exercised personal command of the armies, appointed and dismissed officials and adopted whatever policies they so desired. In theory the emperors owned all the land and granted use of it to peasant families on a hereditary basis in return for payment of fixed taxes. Emperors and Islam Safavids were prominent leaders of a Sufi religious order / Ottomans and Mughals associated with Sufis / devotion to Islam encouraged rulers to extend their faith to new lands / ghazi ideal spread Islam by fighting infidels or heretics reflected the traditions of Turkish and Mongolian peoples: on the steppes fighting was routine successful warriors became charismatic leaders. Steppe Traditions Autocratic authority of the empires leaders reflects back to steppe traditions of leadership / emperors did as they pleased regardless of religious or social norms Ottoman rulers unilaterally passed numerous legal edicts Safavid / Mughal rulers asserted their spiritual authority / Shah Ismail forced Shi ite religion on his subjects Akbar decreed in 1579 claimed broad authority in religious matters / promoted his own eclectic religion which glorified the emperor as much as Islam Succession Problems related to steppe traditions / in steppe empires ruler s relatives often managed components of the states resulting in competition for the throne by family members: Mughal Empire family controversy conflicts among princes and rebellions of sons against fathers were recurring problems: Saafavid Empire engaged in murderous struggles for the throne / Shah Abbas kept his sons confined to the palace and blinded or killed relatives who were suspect of overthrow attempts Ottomans assigned provinces for the sultan s sons to administer / kept the empire tightly unified / after the 15 th century sultans moved to protect their positions by eliminating family members / Ex. Mehmed the Conqueror decreed that it was legal for a ruler to kill off his brothers after taking the throne. Women and Politics Muslim theorists universally agreed that women should have no role in public affairs and decried the involvement of women in politics as a sure sign of decadence however women played a important roles in Islamic empires. Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal emperors followed the lead of Genghis Khan who revered his mother and first wife / in Islamic empires the ruler s mother, chief wife or favorite concubine received special privileges and authority / Ottoman courtiers were outraged and often complained openly.
Agriculture and Trade Food Crops Productive agricultural economies were the foundations of all the Islamic empires / Surplus agricultural production was extracted for the purpose of financing the military and the bureaucracies. Wheat and rice were the traditional crops but the Columbian Exchange introduced new crops to all the empires but with less dramatic outcomes as in Europe, east Asia and Africa / Maize became a source of animal feed did not appeal to the Muslims / Potatoes and tomatoes were utilized to enhance the cuisine / tobacco and coffee consumption were greatly encouraged / coffee was native to Ethiopia but did not become popular until the 16 th century in Islamic lands / by the 18 th century, American producers and European merchants were supplying the Muslims with sugar and coffee. Coffeehouses popularity in smoking and coffee drinking encouraged the establishment of coffeehouses so people could satisfy their desire for caffeine and nicotine / this provoked protest from moralists who considered the coffeehouses as dens of iniquity attracting crowds of idlers / men were distracted from their religious duties / Sultan Murad IV-outlawed the partaking of coffee and tobacco and executed those who continued the practice / losing battle the coffeehouses became prominent social institutions in the Islamic empires. Trade The Islamic empires controlled lands that had long been active in longdistance trade and had participated in global trade in the early modern time. Ottomans had established special trade concessions with England and France to solidify alliances against common enemies Spain and central Europe. Isfahan Shah Abbas had extended trade rights to foreign merchants and even allowed Christian monastic orders to establish missions for the purpose of creating a favorable trade environment. The English, French and Dutch all traded with the Safavid Empire / English sent military advisors to introduce gunpowder weapons and sent a navy to retake Hormuz from the Portuguese all to aid their trade position with the Safavids. Mughal Empire did not focus on trade as intently as the Ottomans or Safavids due to its vast size and to focus on the productivity of the Indian economy / concentrated on their land empire rather than maritime trade / Mughal treasury did receive significant income from trade allowed the English, Dutch, Portuguese and French to maintain trade stations and merchant colonies / Indian merchants formed their own trading companies and traded as far away as Russia. Religious Affairs in the Islamic Empires All the Islamic empires had populations that were both religiously and ethnically diverse and their rulers had to maintain harmony in these communities. Ottomans large population of Jews and Christians Safavids sizable Jewish population, Christian and Zoroastrians Mughals majority Hindu, Jainists and Zoroastrians
Status Religious Minorities Did not require conversion to Islam / extended the minorities the status of a protected people (dhimmi) / these groups retained their personal freedom, kept their property, practiced their own religion and handled their own legal affairs in return for a special tax and loyalty: Ottomans created millets autonomous religious communities Mughals retained the highest military and administrative positions for Muslims / some rulers, such as Akbar tried to consolidate and forge links between religious communities / Akbar supported the efforts of the Sikhs who combined elements of Hindu and Islam / eliminated the special tax (jizya) Promotion of Islam Religious tolerance not popular with all Muslims / concern lose their religious identity / in India concerned that Islam would be absorbed into Hindu as another caste. Insisted that Mughal rulers maintain an Islamic state based on Islamic law / 1659 Aurangzeb reinstated the special tax and promoted Islam as the official faith of Mughal India / satisfied zealous Muslims but created deep tension with the Hindu population that persisted throughout the Mughal period and beyond. Cultural Patronage of the Islamic Emperors Maturation of the empires led to the rulers patronage of religious scholars, poets, artists, architects along with the development of public works projects with the goal of enhancing their prestige. Resources were utilized on such projects as soup kitchens for the poor and lavish spending on hospitals, schools, mosques, government buildings and the palaces. Capital cities and royal palaces received the most attention Istanbul was the focus of great pride was returned to pre-conquest days of glory. Isfahan- became the focal point of the Safavid empire markets, the palace and the royal mosque were all built around a vast polo field and public square / palace in Isfahan were not as sprawling as those of the Ottoman and Mughal Empires. The early Mughals followed steppe tradition of the capital being wherever the ruler maintains his camp. Eventually developed an urban identity blended central Asian traditions with Hindu architecture. 1569-1585 Fatehpur Sikri- capital built under Akbar s leadership / built as a tribute to his conquest of the province of Gujarat / city incorporated many Hindu elements of building design / city was eventually abandoned due to poor water supply. The Empires in Transition 16 th 18 th centuries radical change / Safavid empire disappeared entirely -1722 / following death of Aurangzeb in 1707 Mughal India suffered provincial rebellions and foreign invasions / by mid-century the sub-continent was falling to British imperial rule / by 1700 the Ottomans were on the defensive lost control over remote provinces of Lebanon and Egypt / 18 th century faced pressures from European and Russian states.
Deterioration of Imperial Leadership Islamic empires were dependent on strong, effective central authority political theorists emphasized the importance of rulers who were virtuous, diligent and just / weak, corrupt rulers would allow institutions to become dysfunctional and social order to break down. Dynastic Decline Following centuries of strong competent rulers, each empire was faced with less competent rulers who were more interested in spending money on personal pleasures than attending to state affairs. Each dynasty also faced internal problems of corruption / Ottoman princes were confined no experience with government procedure but were exposed to plots against the throne to put favored candidates in a position to become sultan. Weak rule provoked mutinies in the army, provincial revolts, political corruption and economic oppression. Religious Tensions Religious tensions gave rise to political troubles. Clerics mistrusted emperors objected to policies and practices that they considered an affront to Islam. Muslim leaders had considerable influence due to their monopoly of education and involvement in the legal affairs of ordinary subjects / emperors had interest in unconventional forms of Islam such as Sufism /clerics complained about the role of non-muslim women who were influential in politics and protested any exercise of royal authority that contradicted Islamic law. Examples: Ottomans disaffected religious students often joined the Janissaries in revolt / movement in Arabia denounced the Ottomans as dangerous religious innovators. Safavids Shi ite leaders pressured the ruler to persecute Sunnis, non- Muslims and Sufis Mughals ruler ordered the destruction of Hindu temples and required non-muslims to pay the poll tax Economic and Military Decline 16 th century all the Muslim empires had strong domestic economies and participated in global trade networks. 18 th century domestic economies under stress, foreign trade had declined and fallen under control of European powers. Economic Stagnation High cost of maintaining expensive military and administrative structures helped bring about economic decline / expansion had allowed for the extraction of resources from the conquered lands to support the military and bureaucracies / expansion slowed, ceased or reversed limited resources created financial problems / officials resorted to raising taxes, selling public offices, accepting bribes or simple extortion to replace lost revenues. Also, the empires failed to pursue trade but rather allowed foreign merchants to come to them (Ottomans had relied heavily on European trade for weapons and gunpowder supplies)
17 th century European military technology advanced more rapidly / Islamic empires could not keep pace / none of the empires had a large armaments industry / had to rely on foreign suppliers / their arsenals became dated depended on technologies that the Europeans had already replaced / late 18 th century Ottomans closed their shipbuilding operations and ordered vessels from foreign shipyards. Cultural Insularity Islamic empires also neglected cultural developments in the larger world / Europeans had tried to learn as much as possible about the Islamic lands they visited / published accounts of these travels / few Muslims traveled willingly to infidel lands / Muslims and their rulers believed in their superiority and would not learn anything from the Europeans / most Muslims remained oblivious to cultural and technological developments Cleric conservatives prevented the spread of the use of the printing press / used in various parts of the Ottoman empire Arabic and Turkish print were forbidden / 1784 a Turkish press was opened soon thereafter, printing spread throughout the Ottoman empire. C/C similar to China and Tokugawa Japan, the Islamic empires resisted introduction of cultural influences from western European societies / gunpowder was accepted as an enhancement too military and political power / drew little inspiration from European religion, science or ideas / conservative religious leaders and Islamic authorities actively discouraged the circulation of writings that would challenge the social and cultural order of the Islamic empires.