Western Europe during the High Middle Ages Establishment of Regional States Overview Roman Empire inspiration for a centralized political structure embracing all of Christian Europe: Late 10 th century German princes formed the so-called Holy Roman Empire viewed as a revival of the earlier Roman Empire / in fact, the Roman Empire returned only in name. Attempts by medieval emperors to extend their influence beyond Germany was met by resistance from popes and the princes of other European lands / independent feudal monarchies developed and emerged in France and England / other authorities ruled various regions of Spain and Italy. Result: Medieval Europe was a political mosaic of independent and competing regional states / external clashes along with internal challenges / organized individual territories efficiently / laid the political foundations for the emergence of powerful nation states. The Holy Roman Empire Carolingian empire faded (9 th century) Counts, dukes and other local authorities maintained order in their own regions / some gradually extended their influence beyond their original jurisdiction built larger states / Otto of Saxony - by mid 10 th C. established himself as king in northern Germany / proclaimed emperor in 962 C.E. by Pope John XII / Otto had supported the church by protecting its interests in Italy (C/C Charlemagne) Conflicts with the papacy prevented the emperors from creating a unified Europe / they had attempted to establish the Holy Roman Empire as a hegemonic state reintroducing imperial unity to Europe. (relations between the emperors and pope were always strained ) Investiture Contest - neither the popes nor emperors were strong enough to dominate the other / Investiture issue allowed the popes to maintain a weakened position of the emperors / this issue resulted from the early days of the Holy Roman Empire when the imperial authorities had named the higher clergy to their positions - connection of political as well as religious services provided by the higher clergy. Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085 C.E.)-ordered the end of the practice of lay investiture / regained control of the clergy: Voltaire 18 th century French writer: The Holy Roman Empire was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire. The Holy Roman Empire was an empire principally in name: Reality it was a regional state ruling Germany, though if also wielded influence intermittently in eastern Europe and Italy. Feudal Monarchies / France and England Absence of effective imperial power / regional states emerged throughout medieval Europe / France and England princes established regional monarchies on the basis of feudal relationships between lords and vassals: Capetian France 987 C.E. / feudal lords elected Hugh Capet to serve as king / could not challenge other vassals due to lack of power / descendants gained power by adding to their resources / expanded
political influence / absorbed territories of vassals who died without heirs / by the 14 th C. had gradually centralized power and authority in France: Norman England 1066 Battle of Hastings William Duke of Normandy defeated England s King Harold introduced Norman style feudalism to England while retaining institutions of his Anglo-Saxon predecessors / Norman kings ruled over a tightly centralized realm. Capetians and Normans faced many internal challenges from vassals plus challenges from each other / Normans periodically tried to expand their holding in France from their base in Normandy / both established relatively successful feudal monarchies. Regional States / Italy and Iberia Italy a series of ecclesiastical states, city-states, and principalities competed for power and position / central Italy was controlled by the popes even though the papacy was a spiritual not political post popes ruled a good-sized region the Papal State. Trade and manufacturing created wealth for the cities lay classes challenged the bishops and gradually displaced them as ruling authority. Iberia regional states competed for power in the Iberian peninsula / 8 th to 10 th C.- majority of the region was controlled by Muslims / mid 11 th C. Christian states began to attack these regions to enlarge their domains / late 13 th C. Christian kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal controlled most of the peninsula / Granada remained Muslim Medieval political structure of Europe was complex and complicated: 1. Holy Roman Empire 2. feudal monarchies 3. ecclesiastical principalities 4. city-states 5. new states founded on conquest Most rulers campaigned to expand their holdings rather than establish a unified imperial state. Economic Growth / Social Development Social development and economic growth resulted from effective political organization (C/C China, India and the Islamic world) European society was transformed as a result of agricultural production, urbanization, manufacturing and trade / commercial relationships once again developed with distant lands. Agricultural Economy C/C as in post-classical China, India and Islamic regions, increases in agricultural yields was the foundation of economic growth and social development. 1. opening of new lands to cultivation 2. improved agricultural techniques 3. use of new tools and technologies 4. introduction of new crops Population Growth
As in other lands increases in agricultural yields = population growth (agriculture supports the population) 800 C.E. Carolingian era = 29 million By 1000 C.E. regional states ended invasions / restored order = 36 million By 1100 C.E. due to agricultural advancements and economy = 44 million By 1200 C.E. 58 million (30% increase 1 century) By 1300 C.E. 79 million (36 % increase) Revival of Towns and Trade Greater supplies of food = ability to support a larger number of urban residents (artisans, craftsmen, professionals and merchants) Peasants and serfs moved to established cities or founded new towns opportunities for work / first time since the Roman Empire cities began to play a greater role in European economic and social development: Specialization: growth of towns and cities generated labor specialization = expansion in manufacturing and trade (wool and textiles were major trade commodities) Northern France the counts of Champagne sponsored trade fairs / marketplaces for merchants to compare and exchange goods. Mediterranean Trade: Urban revival was most prominent in Italy / geographic location to Mediterranean trade networks / Italian merchants established colonies in the major ports and commercial centers of the Black Sea and Med. Sea Basin. Hanseatic League: Trade network established in the Baltic and North Sea regions / Novgorod to London plus major centers in Poland, N. Germany and Scandinavia. Improved Business Techniques: C/C China and the Islamic world increased volume of trade encouraged the development of credit, banking, and new forms of business organizations. 1. letters of credit enhanced long-distance trade 2. partnerships pool the risks of commercial investment 3. commercial partnerships limitation on individual liability Social Change Three Classes: 1. Those who pray 2. Those who fight 3. Those who work 1. Clergy of all levels parish priests to bishops, cardinals / pope loyal to the church rather than secular powers 2. Feudal nobles (inherited positions / educated in the areas of horsemanship and military skills) 3. Workers vast majority of the population Medieval society was clearly marked by political, social, and economic inequality / those who prayed and fought may not have had lives of luxury but did have privileges and rights denied to the workers. Independent Cities
By the 12 th C. the working class also included increasing numbers of merchants, craftsmen, physicians, and lawyers not just peasants / urban expansion and the growth of the working population promoted the towns and cities as jurisdictions that fit awkwardly into the feudal political framework / feudal lords had previously dominated and taxed small towns but increases in population gave towns the means by which they could resist the feudal lords / towns and cities became independent entities / by the 11 th C. residents of prosperous towns demanded the lords to grant them charters of incorporation that would exempt them from feudal regulation. Guilds Medieval cities not egalitarian societies / cities attracted noble migrants along with peasants and serfs urban nobles tended to dominate city affairs Craftsmen, merchants, others organized guilds to which reflected the interests of the working classes (regulate production and sale of goods) By the 13 th C. guilds controlled much of the urban economy of medieval Europe / established standards of quality for manufactured goods, often requiring the adoption of specific techniques of production / determined the prices at which members had to sell their products / also regulated membership of new workers -> regulated supply and demand. Urban Women Rural women continued to perform their basic tasks as their ancestors maintain the household, weaving, care of domestic animals / towns presented women with new opportunities women worked alongside men as butchers, brewers, bakers, fishmongers, merchants, innkeepers, some professional employment along with other professions / women dominated some occupations -> textiles and decorative arts ( hats, wigs, fur garments) Most guilds admitted women and some were exclusively for women. Increasing prominence of women in medieval European society represents the importance of towns and cities as agents of social change. Due to continued patriarchy, women were still faced with challenges to gain positions of political authority. European Christianity / High Middle Ages Roman Catholic Christianity guided European thought on religious, moral, and ethical matters / church officials administered rituals / art and literature along with music of the High Middle Ages was influenced by the church and Christianity. C/C Mosques and minarets defined the skylines of the Islamic world and the spires of cathedrals dominated the landscape of medieval Europe visual importance of religion and the presence of the Roman Catholic Church. COT 1000 1300 Western Christianity changed developed an individual identity from the Eastern Orthodox church / western theologians were reacquainted with Aristotle s works produced a synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy and Christian values. Challenges Church of Rome faced challenges from popular religious movements advocated theological and institutional changes.
Schools / Universities / Scholastic Theology Early Middle Ages Europe was not stable or wealthy enough to support institutions of advanced education /Monasteries rudimentary education / scholars were supported by political leaders / no set or established curricula so teachings were inspired by the Bible and authoritative church scholars. High Middle Ages economic development wealth of Europe increased resources available for education / increased complexity of society required more educated people (law, medicine, theological, political) Cathedral Schools / Universities early 11 th century church officials organized schools in their cathedrals / invited scholars as master teachers By the 12 th century established a formal curricula / based on Latin writings / focused on philosophy and literature Mid 12 th century students and teachers organized academic guilds / student guilds demanded fair treatment from townspeople / wanted rigorous high-quality instruction / faculty guilds sought to vest teachers with the right to bestow academic degrees license to teach in another city and control curriculum / Result transformed cathedral schools into universities. Influence of Aristotle Development of the universities coincided with the rediscovery of Aristotle s works / Byzantine scholars knew Aristotle in Greek but had very little interaction with the western church / High Middle Ages trade and commerce opened communication between east and west western scholars obtained Latin copies of Aristotle s work / Muslim philosophers were also influential in passing along these works / 13 th century Aristotle s work profoundly influenced almost all branches of thought in Europe / most notable scholastic theology: synthesize the beliefs and values of Christianity with the logical rigor of Greek philosophy: Most famous scholastic theologian St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274): believed that Aristotle had understood and explained the workings of the world better than any other thinker of any era / Aristotle provided the most powerful analysis of the world according to human reason while Christianity explained the world and human life as the results of a divine plan / St. Thomas view existence of God did not depend exclusively upon an individual s faith / From Aristotle it was possible to prove rationally that God exists / St. Thomas borrowed Aristotle s idea of a conscious agent and identified it as the God of the Jews and Christians / Result: Expressed in the thought of St. Thomas Aquinas, scholastic theology represented the harmonization of Aristotle with Christianity and the synthesis of reason and faith. C/C neo-confucianism or the Islamic philosophy of Ibn Rushd.
Popular Religion Scholastic Theologians addressed the sophisticated, intellectual elites, not the majority common people of medieval Europe. To the commoners religion was important as a set of beliefs and rituals gave meaning to individual lives created a unified coherent community Formal doctrine and theology did not appeal to the popular audiences compared to ceremonies and observances that held a community together. 1. Sacraments holy rituals 2. Devotion to Saints - 3. Virgin Mary 4. Saints Relics 5. Pilgrimage Pilgrimages of the High Middle Ages became so popular that they generated new travel industry inns, guide books, guides Reform Movements / Popular Heresies Veneration of saints and pilgrimages indicated deep levels of piety popular religion also reflected the social and economic development of medieval Europe. Europe s new gained wealth reflected a desire for material goods which was feared by the truly devout / even the church seemed tainted by materialism Dominicans and Franciscans- organized movements designed to champion spirituality over materialism / 13 th century - Sts. Dominic and Francis founded the mendicants ( beggars ) known as the Dominican and Franciscan friars no personal belongings but rather begged for food, and other necessities. Medieval Expansion of Europe High Middle Ages relationship between western Europeans and their neighbors underwent a dramatic change. Powerful state, economic expansion and demographic growth strengthened European society and the church encouraged colonization for the purpose of spreading Christianity among the pagans and Muslims. 11 th Century expansion into the Atlantic regions, the Baltic and the Mediterranean regions / Baltic region Christianity was introduced following European conquest / Mediterranean basin Christians recaptured Spain and Mediterranean islands that the Muslims had conquered between the 8 th / 10 th centuries. Crusades to the Holy Lands to regain Palestine signaled that the Europeans were going to play a bigger role in eastern affairs than they had during the early Middle Ages. Reconquest of Sicily and Spain Christian Europe also expanded in the Mediterranean basin / came in conflict with the Muslims / ancestors had conquered islands and the majority of the Iberian Peninsula between the 8 th and 10 th centuries / As the European society became stronger looked to re-conquer these territories and integrate them into Christian society. Sicily most important island conquered by Muslims 9 th century
Norman warriors 11 th century returned Sicily to Christian society Islam did not disappear immediately but was practiced privately / Muslim scholars in Sicily introduced Arabic translations of Aristotle to the Christian scholars inspired scholastic philosophers Long term Muslims either left Sicily, converted to Christianity / Islam gradually disappeared from the island. Reconquista of Spain Took much longer than the recapture of Sicily. Re-conquest began in the 1060 s / successes in 1085 & 1150 lured reinforcements from Western Christian states such as France and England / first half 13 th century most of the Iberian Peninsula was once again in Christian hands / Granada remained Islam until 1492 The re-conquests were a result of Christian European political, economic and demographic strength / Spain religion was also a key factor in the re-conquest. Immediate results church established bishoprics and organized the conversion of populations to Christianity; Learned audiences Christianity explained in the terms of scholastic theology Popular audiences Christianity presented through its basic teachings The Crusades (Holy War) 1095 Urban II launched the Crusades Council of Clermont/ called for the Christian knights to take up arms and seize the holy lands and Jerusalem from the Muslims / salvation was promised to those who died in battle / within a year a ragtag, untrained army of poor knights, women and peasants organized by Peter the Hermit set out for Palestine / campaign was a disaster: First Crusade French and Norman nobles organized a respectable military expedition / Late 1096 set out for Palestine: 1097 captured Edessa/1098-captured Antioch / 1099 Jerusalem fell to the crusaders. Crusader victories at the expense of Muslim disarray was cause for the Turks, Egyptians, and other Muslim groups to unify at least temporarily By mid-12 th century feudal Christian Crusader communities were under pressure from Muslim forces / Turks retook Edessa 1147 / Saladin retook Jerusalem in 1187 / Crusader enclaves remained for another century but Saladin s victory was fateful for the Europeans. Later Crusades Mid 13 th century five major crusades none succeeded in reestablishing a Christian presence in Palestine: 4 th Crusade (1202-1204) disastrous Crusaders conquered Constantinople/ sacked and looted the city / installed a Roman Catholic regime that survived until 1261 / Byzantine Empire never fully recovered and Constantinople would fall in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks Consequences / Crusades Economic and commercial expeditions eventually increased the wealth of Europe due to interactions with Muslim traders.