The structure of this lecture 1. Introduction (coordination vs. subordination) 2. Types of subordinate clauses 3. Functions of subordinate clauses 2
1. Introduction 3
1.1. Intro: structure reduction vs. expansion A (modified) reminder MEANS OF STRUCTURE REDUCTION (to avoid redundancy of expression): pro-forms 1) John will write a letter on Monday, and Mary will do so on Tuesday. ellipsis 2) John will write a letter on Monday, but Mary won t. MEANS OF STRUCTURE EXPANSION (complex sentences consisting of more than one clause): coordination 3) John will write a letter on Monday, and Mary will help him. subordination 4) John hopes that Mary will help him. 5) John will write a letter, although Mary won t help him. cf. 3) 4
1.2. Intro: coordination vs. subordination A reminder [clause vs. sentence] sentence main clause main clause S V O S V O I admire her but I hate her cat. sentence main clause A S V O subordinate clause S V O Although I admire her I hate her cat. 5
1.3. Intro: coordination vs. subordination S m A reminder S a Conj S b NP VP NP VP V NP V NP I admire her but I hate her cat. [ S m [S a ] Conj [S b ] ] vs. [S m [S b ] Conj [S a ] ] S a S b NP VP Comp NP VP V NP V NP Although I admire her I hate her cat. [ S a [S b Comp...] NP VP ] vs. [ S a NP VP [S b Comp...] ] 6
1.4. Intro: coordination vs. subordination subordinator (subordinating conjunction) = complementizer coordinator (coordinating conjunction) = conjunction subordination that, whether, if, although and, or, but subordination is a non-symmetrical relation, holding between two clauses in such a way that one is a constituent part of the other, cf. 1) He tried hard, but he failed. 2) Although he tried hard, he failed. He failed, although he tried hard. 7
1.5. Intro: subordination each subordinate clause may be superordinate to one or more other clauses: (I know (that you can do it (if you work hard (when it is necessary)))) S I know S that you can do it S if you work hard S when it is necessary 8
2. Types of subordinate clauses 9
2.1. Types of subordinate clauses Clause types in general finite clause its verb(al complex) is finite 1) John visited Paris. I know (that) John visited Paris. 2) John has visited Paris. 3) John may have visited Paris. non-finite clause its verb(al complex) is non-finite verbless clause 4) To carry heavy parcels is a challenge. 5) For John to carry a heavy parcel was a challenge. 6) Having seen the pictures, John decided to leave. it contains no verbal element 7) Although always helpful, John doesn t work too hard. 8) John, then in Paris, very often visited Mary. 10
2.2. Types of subordinate clauses Clause types in subordination non-finite and verbless clauses very often don t have an overt subject infinitive with to infinitive without to -ing participle -ed participle 1) The best thing would be to tell everybody. 2) The best thing would be for you to tell everybody. 3) All I did was hit him on the head. 4) Rather than John do it, I d prefer to do it myself. 5) Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat. 6) Mary having left, I decided to watch a film. 7) With the tree growing tall, we get more shade. 8) Covered with confusion, I left the room. 9) The job finished, we left the room and went home. 10) With the tree grown tall, we get more shade. verbless clause 11) Dozens of people were stranded, many of them kids. 12) Whether right or wrong, he is always sure of himself. 13) With the tree now tall, we get more shade. 11
2.3. Types of subordinate clauses Indicators of subordination simple subordinators compound subordinators correlative subordinators wh-elements subj operator inversion that is often omitted that, if<, whether, (al)though, because, since, after, when (!), in that, so that, except that, in order that now (that), provided (that), supposing (that) as far/long/soon as, so long as if then, (al)though yet, no sooner than, whether or, the the The more I think about this, the more disappointed I am. I don t know when John left. I don t know whether John left. (!) Should you arrive late, call me immediately. Had I known about your arrival, I would have I suppose (that) you are right. 12
3. Functions of subordinate clauses 13
3.1. Functions of subordinate clauses An overview *subject* That we need more equipment is obvious. *direct object* (Q!) I know that she is pretty. (= object 1) subject complement The point is that we re leaving. *indirect object* (Q!) I gave whoever it was a cup of tea. (= object 1) *direct object* (Q!) I gave John whatever he wanted. (= object 2) object complement I imagined him overcome with grief. adjunct When we meet, I shall explain everything. disjunct To be honest, I ve never liked him. conjunct What is more, he has lost all his friends. postmodifier in NP I need a friend who always remains loyal. *complement in PP* It depends on what we decide. complement in AP He is always ready to act promptly. 14
3.2. Functions of subordinate clauses * nominal clauses can have the same functions as NPs! S (XP) NP subj (Aux) VP (Aux) (Aux) (Aux) V (NP) obj1 (NP) obj2 XP* PP P on NP our decision 15
3.3. Functions of subordinate clauses finite nominal clauses that-clauses wh-interrogative clauses yes-no interrogatives nominal relative clauses That she is alive is a relief. I told him that he was wrong. The assumption is that things will improve. I m sure that things will improve. How the book will sell depends on its author. I can t imagine what made him do it. The question is who will go. I wasn t certain whose house I was in. Nobody was consulted on who should have the prize. Whether/*if it rains or not doesn t concern me. - Do you know if/whether the banks are open? What he is looking for is a wife. I want to see whoever deals with complaints. He gave whoever came to the door a winning smile. Home is where your friends and family are. You can call me what(ever) (names) you like. Vote for which(ever) candidate you like. 16
3.4. Functions of subordinate clauses non-finite & verbless nominal clauses to-infinitive clauses bare infinitives -ing clauses verbless clauses For a bridge to collapse like that is unbelievable. He likes everyone to be happy. My wish is to be a pilot. I m glad to help you. All I did was (to) turn off the gas. Turn off the gas was all I did. Telling lies is wrong. No one enjoys deceiving his own family. His favourite pastime is playing practical jokes. I m tired of being treated like a child. The children were busy building sandcastles. Wall-to-wall carpets in every room is very expensive. 17
3.5. Functions of subordinate clauses adverbial clauses (1) time place condition & concession reason & cause circumstance When I last saw you, you lived in Paris. Our host, once everyone had arrived, was full of good humour. I was reading a book when John entered. They went wherever they could find work. Where the fire had been, we saw nothing but blackened ruins. If you treat her kindly, (then) she ll do anything for you. Although he hadn t eaten for days, he (nevertheless) looked very fit. Even if he went down on bended knees, I wouldn t forgive him. I lent him money because he needed it. As/since Jane was the eldest, she looked after the others. Being a man of ingenuity, he soon repaired the machine. Seeing that the weather has improved, we shall enjoy our game. The weather having improved, we enjoyed 18 the rest of the game.
3.6. Functions of subordinate clauses adverbial clauses (2) purpose result manner & comparison proportion & preference I left early to catch the train. They left the door open in order for me to hear the baby. John visited London in order that / so (that) he could meet Mary. We planted many shrubs, so (that) the garden soon looked much more beautiful. Please do it (exactly) as I instructed. (Just) as a moth is attracted by a light, (so) he was fascinated by her. He looks as if he is going to be ill. He treated me (just) as if he had never met me. As he grew disheartened, (so) his work deteriorated. The more he thought about it, the less he liked it. The harder he worked, the happier he felt. Rather/Sooner than go there by air, I d take the slowest train. Rather than sitting quietly at home, he preferred to visit his friends. 19