PREFACE It is said that History has two eyes, namely Chronology and Geography, Eras and dates, used in contemporary records, are considered the most vital factors in the determination of Chronology. We come across a number of specified eras in the history of ancient India and particularly in the history of Orissa. But, there is a lot of controversy about the initial dates and even about the propounders of these eras. The astronomical details of the dates, found in ancient records, are also not free from controversy. In this thesis, an attempt has been made, for the first time, to analyse different views and theories regarding eras and dates in the inscriptions 1 records of Orissa and to find out most reasonable and sober solutions of the problems. In the early epigraphs of Orissa, like the Asokan Edicts at Dhauli and Jaugarh, the Hathi Gumpha Inscription of Kharavela in Udayagiri hill near Bhubaneswar and the copper plate charters of the Mathara and Vasistha kings, only the regnal years of the rulers have been mentioned. But, with the establishment of the rule of the early Gangas in Kalinga in about 500 A.D. we, for the first time, come across the use of a specific era which is particularly known as the Ganga Era. After 1563 when the Muslim rule was established in Orissa, eras and dates do not pose any problem to the
historians and scholars and there is absolutely no controversy on Chronology in the history of Orissa, I have, therefore, taken the period from Cir, 500 A.D. to 1568 A.D. for the study of eras and dates in Orissan epigraphs. In the arrangement of chapters, I have followed the principle of Chronology, not according t0 the initial date of an era but according to the period of its introduction and use in the land of Orissa. For instance, the chapter on Gariga Era comes immediately after the introductory chapter because it is the earliest era, used in Orissan epigraph, although its initial date was 498 A.D. The Gupta Era of 319 A.D, was used in Orissan records only in the later half of the 6th century and the first quarter of the 7th century A.D. and therefore, it is dealt after the Ganga Era. The / Saka Era was introduced in Orissa about the close of 10th century A.D. and it is narrated in a later chapter. The thesis is a work on historical Chronology and not on astronomy or astrology. Therefore, I have not gone deep into astronomy and have utilised astronomical data only to the extent, they are useful for verification'of our eras and dates. Besides, I have discussed some fundamentals of astronomy in the chapter on introduction so as to facilitate an easy understanding of the technical terms, used in the body of the thesis.
Ill Although the Kali Yuga Era and the Vikrama Samvat appear to be very popular in Indian literature and epigraphy, we rarely come across their use in Orissan epigraph during the period of our review. I have, therefore,, not devoted separate chapters on them and highlighted their importance only in the introductory chapter. In this chapter also I have discussed in some details the system of Chronogram because the dates and eras in Orissan inscription from 10th century A.D. onwards have been, almost invariably, expressed in this system. The numerical symbbls, used in the early part of our period and the decimal notations, used in the later part, have also been dealt with in this chapter. Thus, a background for the thesis have been provided within the chapter on introduction. The Chapter II deals with the Ganga Era which is the earliest known era, used in Orissan epigraphs. The era was founded by the early Gangas of Kalihganagara. Different views, upheld by the scholars regarding this era, have been discussed in details and its epoch has been fixed at 498 A.D. Chaitra s^jkla pratjpada. This epoch has been verified by astronomical data and synchronistic facts, provided by the epigraphic records. The origin and locality of the era also have been delineated in this connection. The Gupta Era, as has been pointed out above, was used in Orissa epigraphs only in the later half of 6th century A.D.
iv and the early part of 7th century A.D. Therefore, a discussion on that era has been made in the Chapter III. The importance of this era in fixing the chronology of Orissan history during this period has been narrated. Here, I have supported the view that the Mana Era, used in a single copper plate charter of Sdvaraja, a feudatory of Sambhuyas a, i;s identical with the Gupta Era. I have pointed out in Chapter IV the use of Harsa Era in two copper plate charters of 7th century A.D., one belonging / / to Somadatta, feudatory of Sasanka and the other to Madhyamaraja, a Sailodbhava king. The former is important for ascertaining the date of Sasanka s death and the later is helpful in / determining the chronology of the Sailodbhavas. The Chapter V is devoted to Bhauma Era. The circumstances, leading to the rise of Bhaumakaras and the establishment of the said era, have been analysed. The epoch has been fixed at 736 A.D. Chaitra sukla pratipada. This has been verified by the astronomical data, supplied in the charters of the Imperial line as well as of their feudatory chiefs. The discussion of the Bhauma Samvat is, more or less, in the line of the Ganga Era of Chapter II. / Though Saka Era was promulgated as early as 78 A.D, and its use was popular in many parts of ancient India, it was
V introduced in Orissa very late, that is, towards the close of the 10th century A.D. However, it gained royal patronage and immense popularity from the time of Vajrahastadeva V (1038 A.D.) who gave it a recognition of the state era in place of the era of his family, that is, Ganga Era. The S^aka Era has been mostly expressed in chronograms, a unique system which has been dealt in the chapter on introduction, Anka year is a peculiar system of dating the regnal years of the kings during the Ganga and Gajapati periods. It is not found used anywhere except Orissa. I have, therefore, devoted a full chapter, that is, Chapter VII to this system of reckoning. The introduction of Anka year, its evolution and development to an independent system of dating have been historically analysed for the first time. The Chapter VIII gives an account of Barhaspatyamana which is an old system of reckoning. It has two cycles - namely} Twelve year cycle and Sixty year cycle. The former one is rarely found in Grissan epigraphs while the later is used profusely in the Ganga and Gajapati records. In this chapter both the cycles have been explained and discussed with reference to their use in Orissan records. In this connection, I want to submit that although'ithe vast wealth of Qrissan epigraphy have been utilised by scholars
vi to write the political and cultural history of this region, no attempt has so far been made for a historical study of the eras and dates, except a few stray articles and papers in some journals. This being a maiden attempt on a very controversial project. I have tried my best to arrive at reasonable conclusions through sober and scientific analysis of facts so far available to us. To Dr. A.K.Patnaik, my supervisor, I owe a deep debt of gratitude which cannot be adequately conveyed in terms of words. Without his close and keen supervision, active and untiring guidance and constant encouragement, I could not have completed this work. 1 am immensely indebted to my revered teacher, Dr. K.S.Behera, Professor of History, Utkal University for his learned suggestions. I am also grateful to Dr. P.K.Mishra, Reader in History, D.D. College, Keonjhar for his valuable advice and kind cooperation. I express my profound gratitude to the authority of Drissa State Museum who has rendered all possible help ungrudgingly during the progress of my work. I shall be failing in my duty if I do not express my thanks to my wife Smt. Kiran Bala Das. who shouldered all the domestic responsibilities in order to enable me to pursue my research. last but not least, I acknowledge with thanks the assistance, rendered by Shri H.B. Ghadei, who has taken every care and keen interest in typing my thesis.
vii I shall be grossly insensible, if I failed to acknowledge with gratitude to those pioneers and scholars in this field of research, whose works I have studied and extensively utilised, Swn&f Wnttmow Smubf).