Critical Thinking Questions (partially adapted from the questions listed in The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking by Richard Paul and Linda Elder) The following questions can be used in two ways: to help you evaluate other people s essays, and to help you develop your own. In this document, under each question you will find an explanation of its concept; in two related documents you will find suggestions and an example for using these in evaluating sources you read, and suggestions and an example for ways to use them in developing your own essays. 1. What is the writer s predominant purpose? Writers of nonfiction often have more than one purpose in a single text, but one will always predominate over the others. Although there are different ways of defining purpose, the three most basic purposes are generally considered to be these: Informative: the writer is giving readers information on an issue (this kind of writing is often called explication ). Examples: an auditor writes a report on the financial state of a company; an engineer explains how a hybrid car engine works; a scientist shares the results of an experimental study with his colleagues. Persuasive: the writer wishes to convince readers to embrace a particular position on an issue. Examples: an Army general writes a report to the President and the Pentagon requesting more troops for an assignment and trying to convince them that this will make it more possible to win; a student government group writes a proposal to the college s Student Life staff trying to persuade them to change the school dress code; a citizen writes a letter to the editor of his local newspaper trying to persuade other citizens to support the construction of a new factory in order to bring more jobs to the area. Expressive: a writer shares from personal experience to entertain readers and/or encourage them to think about an issue. Examples: a writer writes a book about the sacrifices and joys of the writing life; a Christian writes a meditation on seeing the love of God in the midst of a personal tragedy; a teacher tells stories from his classroom experience to make his readers laugh while showing them the joys, frustrations, and responsibilities of his profession. These three purposes will often overlap, of course, but one will almost always predominate over the others in a given piece. Persuasive writing requires information to be effective, of course, and may use expressive elements to create a personal tone. Informative writing is often persuasive to some degree simply because gaining knowledge usually leads to taking a position, and because the informative writer often can t help at least suggesting a position he considers best, even if only by his word choice and the order in which he gives the information. However, it is possible to minimize this influence. Expressive elements
will probably be kept to a minimum in informative writing, though personal experience may sometimes provide helpful examples. Expressive writing may well form part of an explicitly persuasive piece by appearing as support for an argument, or provide some entertainment in a predominantly informative piece; it also is almost always somewhat persuasive simply by its nature: if I tell the story of a car wreck, I probably hope that readers will drive more carefully. However, the piece itself may not explicitly attempt to persuade readers to do this and would be classified as predominantly expressive. This question, then, asks us to identify the predominant purpose of an essay or article, recognizing that elements of two or even all three purposes may be present. 2. What is the key question the writer is answering? When we write, we are exploring an issue in some way, seeking for an answer to questions we have about it. Of course, when we first begin, we may have a number of questions, but eventually, as we narrow down our thinking, we will focus on one primary question to address in any single essay. (Even a book, however, answers one primary question; it will simply be a much broader question than can be answered in a short piece.) Being able to articulate this question can help us to focus on the information needed to find and develop an answer. For example, my father flew transport planes in World War II; I was in high school during the 60s war protests and my brother is a Viet Nam veteran; I taught in a Mennonite Brethren college where most of my colleagues were true pacifists; my son is now in the Navy and has served in Afghanistan. I am therefore concerned with the issue of war, and I find myself asking a number of questions: What is the just war theory that my Catholic friends often refer to? Is there such a thing as a just war? Is the pacifism of my Mennonite friends a legitimate biblical position? Should I respect my brother s peers who fled to Canada rather than serve during the Viet Nam conflict? Should I respect those who volunteered to serve? What about my Mennonite friends who were conscientious objectors in World War II, Korea, Viet Nam, and who did forms of alternative service in non-military positions? How are we to think about the inevitable deaths of civilians in war? Were we right or wrong to drop nuclear bombs over Japanese cities? What does the Bible say about war and serving in war? Why do different Christian traditions hold such different positions on the individual believer s responsibility in war time? What has been the role of the media in shaping our perceptions of particular conflicts? Clearly I could write at least a book covering these various issues, though even a book might not be very coherent if it addressed so many different topics. If I wish to write an essay, I will have to choose a particular focus, one particular question. Here are some questions on this subject that call for readily accessible research and are narrow enough to be answered in an essay of a few pages: * Is just war theory a biblically based concept that can guide Christians in their response to particular armed conflicts? * What is the responsibility of Christian pacifists to their country in a time of war?
* Does our military do a good job of instilling the principles and discipline in our soldiers and sailors that will help them avoid unrighteous violence in an armed conflict? Notice how each question focuses on one aspect of the subject. A writer s answer to this primary question his conclusion concerning it is his controlling idea (primary claim, thesis) for the essay. (See question 8.) 3. Who is the intended audience for this essay? Nonfiction writing almost always addresses specific audiences; essays and articles appear only in specific publications targeted toward a specific demographic. Of course, some of these audiences are broader than others: a magazine on quilting will have a smaller audience and a narrower range of topics than a newspaper or political magazine. No publication reaches people in general even very broadly published magazines such as Reader s Digest are read by a specific demographic. The audience of a publication thus of an essay or article appearing in it influences many of a writer s decisions. If a writer s audience is mostly career women, the writer will use different examples and even a different tone than writing on a similar topic for an audience of mostly married stay-at-home mothers. Addressing an audience of mostly Christians allows for a different approach to moral subjects than if the audience were almost entirely secular; Christians accept the Bible as authoritative, but natural law and pragmatic arguments will be a better starting point for those who do not recognize it as such. This is not to say that Biblical arguments should be avoided for a secular audience, only that the writer s use of them may need to be couched in different terms. (This is an issue that will be discussed as you write for a variety of audiences during your English composition experience.) Expert audiences and lay audiences require different terminology and background information; persuading those in authority over the writer requires a different tone and approach than persuading those the writer leads. This is not to say that writers should pander to their readers; always speak the truth in love. It is only to say that the means by which we deliver a message change we don t explain a concept the same way to a child, a layman, an expert; we don t narrate an event the same way to a friend, an authority, a stranger. When analyzing an essay, we need to know its intended audience; if we are not part of that audience, we must adjust our reading to take that fact into account, not expecting the essay to meet our needs and take into account our experience and knowledge. Essays we write will only be effective if they actually address the concerns and questions and needs of the audience they are intended to reach. 4. What are the basic concepts in the topic being addressed? Every essay or article is based on concepts: ideas that the reader must understand in order to understand the writer s message. If I were to write an essay about varying Christian responses to war, I would discuss just war theory and pacifism: these are the concepts that are basic to my
discussion. I would need to know if my audience is familiar with these concepts; if I think they are not, then it is my responsibility to define them so that they understand my discussion. Abstract concepts almost always need to be defined, because they carry different meanings and connotations. If I told a group of people that I was going to write about love, there would be as many visions of that essay as people in the group. Some would assume I meant romantic love, others would think of agape love, some would anticipate an essay on family love, others friendship. If I simply plunge in without clarifying, I will cause initial confusion and perhaps lose my readers. Other examples of abstractions that we may need to define include courage, patriotism, religion, faith, service, integrity. When we refer to such concepts, we usually have a clear idea in our own heads as to what we mean by them, but we must remember that others may not have that same idea. When analyzing an essay, we need to understand the concepts basic to its message; if the writer has not defined them, it may be because his intended audience would not need this. When we write, we need to recognize what basic concepts we are using and decide whether our audience will benefit from their definition. 5. What information is necessary to answer the key question for the particular audience? Once we have identified the key question of an essay we are analyzing or writing, we need to consider what information will be needed to answer it. What facts are important for the readers to know? Will statistics of some kind from surveys or studies help us to find the answer? Examples and anecdotes, analogies, definitions, descriptions, causes and effects, analysis and explanation: all of these can help a writer to answer the question he is exploring. In analyzing an essay, we look at the evidence presented to support its claim and evaluate it according to its accuracy and relevancy. When writing an essay, thinking about these various kinds of information, along with the level of knowledge our audience already has, can help us decide which we need to use in developing the message. 6. What is the writer s point of view in regard to the topic? No one writes from a void or from a strictly neutral viewpoint. In fact, writers care about the subjects they address, or they would hardly bother to take the time to write. It is our responsibility as readers to know as much as we can about a writer s relation to his topic; it is our responsibility as writers to recognize our own viewpoint and not let it make us unreliable. Many factors come into play in determining a writer s point of view. Some of the things we may wish to know may include the writer s sex, age, political affiliation, organizational memberships and affiliations, educational background, jobs and professional positions, etc. Of course, only certain of these factors are relevant for any particular subject.
The writer of an essay on combining a career with motherhood in a women s magazine can be of any political conviction, but we will trust the conclusions better if the writer is a woman and has experienced the life she writes about. If an essay is about public policy concerning health care reform, however, we won t much care if the writer is male or female, but we will want to know if the writer is a Republican, Independent, or Democrat; if he can be fair to opposing viewpoints; and if he has any particular expertise on the subject. Someone who knows nothing whatsoever about Christianity shouldn t write on Christian beliefs; though someone who is not a Christian may do so excellently with study. A writer doesn t have to have experienced something to write about it, but if he has not, then he must show himself knowledgeable through the information he presents. We cannot escape being biased. We are human: by default each of us holds a worldview that fashions the way we see and think. The key to writing well about issues we care about is not to be unbiased which would be to not care but to have a humble heart before knowledge and before the opinions of others. Even when we are completely convinced of the truth of a belief we hold, we can write about it humbly and without condemnation toward those who disagree. And we should always realize that in many of our opinions there is the possibility of our being wrong, or at least not holding the sole and entire truth. Listening, presenting opposing opinions with humility and fairness, and caring about our readers as human beings we wish to influence in a godly manner will help our biases not to overwhelm our sense of love and compassion. Speaking the truth in love: this is the keystone for the Christian s point of view when using language in any form for any reason. 7. What assumptions does the writer make concerning the topic? Because we hold a worldview, we also hold many assumptions about life that we don t always think about when we are discussing a particular issue. For example, as a Christian, I assume that God is the Creator of life and that therefore all life is to be held as uniquely, intrinsically, and utterly valuable. I don t think about this necessarily; it s just a fundamental part of my outlook on life. If I decide to write an essay about embryonic stem cell research, this assumption will underlie all that I write. However, there are many people who do not consider life in this way. They hold a more pragmatic view, that no individual life has unique value but only has value in relation to others. This might lead them to believe that if an embryo is just going to be frozen for some indefinite period, with a high chance of death anyway, it is therefore perfectly rational to use it in research to help humans who are already surviving outside the womb. If I am not alert to these differing assumptions, I may make an argument against embryonic stem cell research that some of my readers the ones I most wish to persuade will not even regard as serious. I must either start with trying to convince them that all life is intrinsically valuable, or I must shape my argument on common ground that does not rely on that assumption for its main support. Recognizing a writer s assumptions even recognizing our own assumptions is often a difficult task. However, it will help us in analyzing arguments to understand exactly why we
agree or disagree with a writer s position, and in shaping arguments to be sure that we appeal to our readers on common ground. 8. What is the writer s answer to the key question? This is the conclusion the writer has drawn based on the information he presents and his way of analyzing that information according to his worldview: it is his primary claim, or controlling idea or thesis. (These are all words for the same thing: the main idea the writer makes that he wishes his readers to remember and, in persuasive writing, agree with and act on.) This claim will often be made toward the beginning of an essay, though a writer may give background information first, or develop the opposing argument first in order to refute it. In analyzing an essay, we decide whether we agree with this conclusion based on how strong the argument supporting it is; in writing an essay, we will want to make our conclusion clear and logical, being sure that everything in the essay leads to it. 9. What are the implications of the writer s answer? This asks us to look beyond just what is said to what might happen if the writer is correct or incorrect in his conclusions. If, for example, a writer concludes that we should approve the building of a new factory in our small town, what will happen if his conclusion is embraced by the community and the factory is built? Of course, new jobs will be brought in, a good for the local economy. But are there any negative implications? Will the increased traffic put a strain on local roadways that will be expensive and difficult to ameliorate, maybe causing the need to destroy some homes and local small businesses for expanded capability? Will this approval open the door to more industry and change the entire nature of the town? Maybe these trade-offs are worth the benefits, but we need to look beyond the immediate to possible unintended consequences to make wise decisions. In analyzing arguments, we should look beyond the benefits stated to consider what else might happen as a result of embracing the writer s conclusions, both positive and negative. As writers, we should consider the implications of our arguments carefully and address these when possible.