The Rule of St. Benedict Insights into early western monasticism

The Rule of St. Benedict Insights into early western monasticism

St. Benedict of Nursia (c.480-547) is known as a founder of monasticism in the West. His Rule for the governance of monasteries becomes the standard for religious life in Western Europe, such that not only diocesan but earlier orders such as the Carmelites and later religious communities such as Franciscans, Dominicans, Salesians, Jesuits, etc. would still keep its prescriptions for the Divine Office. What is known about the life of St. Benedict is derived from two sources: his Rule and the Dialogues of Pope St. Gregory the Great (589-604). St. Gregory in the Dialogues cites as his sources four direct contemporary disciples of Benedict: Constantine, Benedict s first successor as abbot [or arch-abbot], Valentinian, former superior at the monastery at the Lateran, Simplicius, Benedict s second successor, and Honoratus, abbot of Subiaco. 1 According to St. Gregory, Benedict was evidently from a prominent family in Norcia that sent him to Rome for his education as a young man. Apparently Benedict was disgusted with his confreres licentious lifestyle, and being afraid that the education he was to receive would also lead him to this unpalatable lifestyle, Benedict abandoned his studies. Adopting the traditional Antonian Egyptian norm of religious life then prevalent in Italy, 2 Benedict took up residence in a remote cave near Subiaco in solitude. His presence was known only to a local monk, Romanus, who obtained food for him. 3 As was apparently common among the Eastern hermits, his presence was eventually discovered by the locals and attracted a number of followers. He was asked by the local monks to become their abbot, a position which he initially refused declaring that his lifestyle [or rule ] would be more than they could bear. Upon eventually accepting, and attempting to exercise his rule at their request, they became dissatisfied, eventually attempting to poison him. 4 Benedict correctly abandons the position, and eventually founded twelve monasteries, with an abbot and twelve monks in each of them. 5 Certainly at this point Benedict would have drawn upon previous formulas for monastic life then current in establishing a common rule of life for his monks. Benedict s Rule would promote monastic literacy, reflect his ideal of social order within the community, and survive the centuries for its adaptability and humanity. There were many rules for religious life extant then, as there are today, and apparently each house could have had its own rule. 6 The most prevalent were the Antonian rule, the rule of St. Pachomius, and the rule of St. Basil, though no doubt the rule of St. Augustine was also known and practiced. 7 St. Gregory indicates in the Dialogues the monastery of the monk Romanus followed the Rule of Abbot Deodatus. 8 Benedict himself makes explicit reference in his Rule that the monks are also to study the Rule of St. Basil. 9 St. Basil, the great Eastern father set himself against the eremetical life and insisted upon a community life, with meals, work, and prayer in common. 10 This was the approach that St. Benedict would also take. Another immense influence on Benedict s Rule would be The Rule of the Master, estimated to have been composed during the first quarter of the sixth century. 11 Before plagiarism was recognized as a special transgression, Benedict felt free to copy passages almost verbatim from the Rule of the Master, improving possible deficiencies. Benedict reiterates from the Rule of the Master the four prevalent types of monks in Italy at that time:...cenobites those who belong to a monastery, where they serve under a rule and an abbot. Second there are the anchorites or hermits, who have come through the test of Olivia Tautkus 2 of 8

living in a monastery for a long time, and have passed beyond the first fervor of monastic life. Thanks to the guidance and help of many, they go from the battle line in the ranks of their brothers to the single combat of the desert. Third sarabites, the most detestable kind of monks, who with no experience to guide them, no rule to try them, have a character as soft as lead two or three together, or even alone, without a shepherd, they pen themselves up in their own sheepfolds, not the Lord s Anything they believe in and choose, they call holy; anything they dislike, they consider forbidden. Fourth, and finally, are the gyrovagues, who spend their entire lives drifting from region to region, staying as guests for three or four days in different monasteries. Always on the move, they never settle down, and are slaves to their own wills and appetites. In every way they are worse than the sarabites. 12 Benedict composes his rule for the cenobitic life, which he feels is the most beneficial for the sanctification of the monk. In addition to Scripture, Benedict recommends spiritual texts such as the Conferences of the Fathers, their Institutes and their Lives,. 13 He also incorporates Ambrosian hymns. Ambrosian hymns were hymns employing very classical Latin, stylistically similar to those supposed to have been composed by St. Ambrose (340-397) Bishop of Milan (372-397). 14 Implied is the literacy of his monks. The Rule itself promoted monastic literacy. The monks are expected, universally as part of the Rule, to study. A part of each day in the winter, when tending the fields would be of less concern, is devoted to reading alone. 15 Books are distributed to each of them. 16 In an established monastery of twelve monks, this would be at least twelve books, which would not likely have included the Scriptures themselves since these would have been set aside specially. The expectation of having books would have meant that they were readily available. Not only this, in proscribing personal property, a monk may have the use of, but not personally own a book, writing tablet or stulus 17 The implication is that the brothers could not only read, but would know the art of letters as well. If a monk had not learned letters before he entered, very likely there would be some provision that he would learn after entrance to gain knowledge of the Psalter, Scriptures, and classic spiritual works of the saints. Benedict does not mention the production of books specifically, so one may conclude that this was a later adaptation for which his followers became so famous for. The chapter of those who could be admitted to the monastery as a brother reflects what was expected of religious monastic life. Since the very nature of life in the monastery would exclude wives (monks had no personal possessions and in complete obedience to the abbot), thus all who attempted to enter would be expected to be in such positions as to be able to embrace the celibate life. These include single men, priests, and strange to modern sensibilities, children. Both the sons of nobility and the poor were to be eligible for entrance. 18 In days when orphanages were not yet known, the protection of a monastery for a child that could not be provided for may have been an attractive option for the poor. For the nobility, a child requiring protection from greedy, bloodthirsty relatives who would otherwise seek his life for his inheritance, this would also be a viable option. Those not included in the guidelines for entrance are bishops. It would be assumed that the conflict in authority between the bishop and the abbot would Olivia Tautkus 3 of 8

preclude the former s ability to enter the community. Neither does Benedict provide for the possibility of an abbot additionally assuming the role of bishop, or even pope, as in the case of St. Gregory the Great. To Benedict, in whose Rule the abbot was so integrally involved in the life of the community, this would not have likely been the ideal. An abbot who was divided between diocesan (or papal) and monastic duties, could not effectively function as the abba, the father of the community. The abbot had nearly complete autocracy within the monastery, however was required to take counsel with the brothers and was not himself above the rule. 19 He could have the help of a prior, deans (who supervised ten monks), and cellarer, all of whose tenure was dependent, according to the Rule, on personal virtue, moderation, and the discretion of the abbot. 20 Rank in the monastery is, according to Benedict, determined not by secular rank or age, but upon the virtue of the individual: a man born free is not to be given higher rank than a slave who becomes a monk, except for some other good reason. But the abbot is free, if he sees fit, to change anyone s rank as justice demands. 21 It is interesting to note that apparently slaves are admitted to the monastery, but no provision given for the owners. Benedict evidently intends that the order of the secular world not be carried into the religious life, but that the order of the monastery more closely reflect the ideal of the world to come. Since all brothers had given up personal possessions, and even their own wills at the door of the monastery, the determining factors of wealth and power that play such a great part in the secular world were to hold no sway here. As Benedict puts forth in the chapter on humility we descend by exultation and ascend by humility. 22 Seniority is determined by date of entrance in the monastery: For example, someone who came to the monastery at the second hour of the day must realize that he is junior to someone who came at the first hour, regardless of age or distinction. 23 Thus it could be possible that an adult just entering the community would be junior to a child who had been given to the monastery at birth. Each monk was given his duties as his talents permitted, such as the reader: Brothers will read and sing, not according to rank, but according to their ability to benefit their hearers. 24 As part of maintaining a functional familial community, Benedict directed that the vows to be taken by the brothers would be stability, fidelity to the monastic life, and obedience. 25 Benedict envisioned a self-contained community that produced all that it needed with extra to be sold for its support. 26 In an age when the Roman Empire was crumbling and the general state of life was chaos, a Benedictine monastery would be an oasis of stability. Indeed the outside world was to invade as little as possible into the lives of the monks. A separate part of the complex of buildings comprising the monastery would house the guests, since as Benedict says monasteries are never without them. 27 Guests were to have separate quarters and kitchens so that they need not disturb the brothers when they present themselves at unpredictable hours. 28 One can well imagine that Benedict had considerable experience with guests appearing at all hours in a time of turbulence and social decay. Proof of the adaptability and reasonableness of Benedict s Rule for the communal life of religious is the fact that it still guides communities of monks and nuns of various nations fifteen centuries later. Far from the extreme asceticism of the Desert Fathers, and the life he initially led, Benedict is rather constantly concerned for the weaker brethren Olivia Tautkus 4 of 8

and the frailty of human nature. Thus one will find rather humorous allowances such as for Vigils: If at Vigils anyone comes after the Glory Be to the Father of Psalm 94, which we wish, therefore to be said quite deliberately and slowly, he is not to stand in his regular place in choir. 29 Although the monks are allowed approximately eight hours of sleep before 30, he gave the slow risers as much leave as possible. As Benedict himself points out, this is a far cry from precedent: For monks who in a weeks time say less than the full psalter with the customary canticles betray extreme indolence and lack of devotion in their service. We read, after all, that our holy Fathers, energetic as they were, did all this in a single day. Let us hope that we, lukewarm as we are, can achieve it in a whole week. 31 He was explicitly building upon what was evidently considered standard for religious life, namely the recitation of the Psalms, and adapting it to less ascetic standards. Although it appears that the food allotment is poor only two meals a day, 32 Benedict s standards are lax compared to earlier practices: With regard to food, the Egyptian ascetics reduced to a minimum, many of them eating only twice or thrice a week, whilst Cassian describes a meal consisting of parched vetches with salt and oil, three olives, two prunes, and a fig, as a sumptuous repast. 33 Benedict recommends in the Rule that the choice of cellarer for the community be a person of moderate temper, particularly as regards to the brothers nourishment: He will provide the brothers their allotted amount of food without any pride or delay, lest they be led astray. 34 Every regard is given to the weakness of human nature and flexibility for the demands of charity. The sick, the old, and the young, because of their fragility are given especial consideration: Since their lack of strength must always be taken into account, they should certainly not be required to follow the strictness of the rule with regard to food, but should be treated with kindly consideration and allowed to eat before the regular hours 35 Care of the sick must rank above and before all else 36 Even though the boys are often recommended to be disciplined by the rod, Benedict attempted to safeguard against disciplinarians: Boys [are] be carefully controlled and supervised by everyone, provided that this is done with moderation and common sense. If a brother even in regard to boys, treats them unreasonably, he is to be subjected to the discipline of the Rule. 37 Ever regarding the frailty of human nature, monks are even allowed to leave up to three times before they could no longer be received back into the community. 38 Benedict provided for adult novices contemplating a vocation the ability to live within the monastery with freedom to leave with complete impunity before taking their final vows (although this seems not to be the case with children dedicated to the monastery). 39 Any personal ascetical practices were only done by permission of the abbot, 40 which in many cases would mitigate extreme penances. Benedict, in his humanity, placed greater emphasis on perfection in the spiritual life by mutual charity in communal life under obedience to an abbot. Benedicts position would be repeated by later great monastics like St. John of the Cross who, although known for great personal penances, would consider mortification of the will a greater good than mortification of the flesh. Olivia Tautkus 5 of 8

Benedicts Rule has survived the centuries for its adaptability and humanity, promoted monastic literacy, and reflected his ideal of the social order within the community. The fact that many men and women in our present day, fifteen centuries after it was written still adhere to it as the governing principle of everyday life is the most convincing evidence of its adaptability and humanity. Through the turbulence of time, Europe s literature was preserved in great part by the promotion of monastic literacy in the Rule. Reading the Word of God and the classic spiritual works of the saints was a part of Benedict s ideal society within the walls of the monastery. Benedict aspired to strip, within the community, the foundations of the secular social order, wealth and power, by the renunciation of personal possessions and voluntary obedience, replacing it with a system where ideally those who have the greatest personal virtue rise to govern the brothers. Written in a world that was falling apart, Benedict s Rule for attaining the everlasting would prove to be stability in the midst of fifteen chaotic centuries. Olivia Tautkus 6 of 8

Bibliography Alston, G.Cyprian. Rule of St Benedict. Catholic Encylcopedia vol.ii. Robert Gordon transcriber. Online Edition 2003 by K Knight. Available at www.newadvent.org/cathen/02436a.htm Benedict [Rule of]. The Rule of St. Benedict in English. Fry O.S.B., Timothy, ed. Collegeville, Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1982. Eberle, Luke, trans. The Rule of the Master. Kalamazoo Michigan: Cistercian Publications, 1977. Henry, H.T. Ambrosian Hymnography. The Catholic Encylopedia: Voume I. Online Edition 2003 by K Knight. Available at www.newadvent.org/cathen/02436a.htm. Pope St. Gregory the Great Dialogues. Readings in Medieval History. Geary, Patrick J. Orchard Park, NY: Broadview Press 1989. Olivia Tautkus 7 of 8

Endnotes 1 Pope St. Gregory the Great Dialogues. Readings in Medieval History. Geary, Patrick J. (Orchard Park, NY: Broadview Press 1989), 213. 2 Alston, G.Cyprian. Rule of St Benedict. Catholic Encylcopedia vol.ii. Robert Gordon transcriber. Online Edition 2003 by K Knight. Available at www.newadvent.org/cathen/02436a.htm. 3 Dialogues, 214. 4 Ibid, 215-216. 5 Ibid, 217. 6 Alston, G.Cyprian. Rule of St Benedict. Catholic Encylcopedia vol.ii. Robert Gordon transcriber. Online Edition 2003 by K Knight. Available at www.newadvent.org/cathen/02436a.htm. 7 Ibid. 8 Dialogues, 214 9 Benedict [Rule of]. The Rule of St. Benedict in English. Fry O.S.B., Timothy, ed, (Collegeville, Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1982), 95. 10 Ibid 11 Eberle, Luke, trans. The Rule of the Master. (Kalamazoo Michigan: Cistercian Publications, 1977), 78. 12 Rule of St. Benedict in English,, 20-21. Rule of the Master 105-110. 13 Rule of St. Benedict in English,95 14 Henry, H.T. Ambrosian Hymnography. The Catholic Encylopedia: Voume I. Online Edition 2003 by K Knight. Available at www.newadvent.org/cathen/02436a.htm. 15 Rule of St. Benedict in English,,69-70. 16 Ibid,70. 17 Ibid,56. 18 Ibid,81 19 Ibid, 25-26. 20 Ibid,48. 21 Ibid,85, 23. 22 Ibid,32 23 Ibid,85 emphasis added 24 Ibid,61. 25 Ibid,79 26 Ibid,91, 78. 27 Ibid,74 28 Ibid,74 29 Ibid,65. emphasis added 30 Ibid,38. 31 Ibid,47 32 Ibid,61-64. 33 Alston, G.Cyprian. Rule of St Benedict. Catholic Encylcopedia vol.ii. Robert Gordon transcriber. Online Edition 2003 by K Knight. Available at www.newadvent.org/cathen/02436a.htm. 34 Ibid,55 35 Ibid,59-60 36 Ibid,59 37 Ibid,93 38 Ibid,53-54. 39 Ibid,79-80. 40 Ibid,71 Olivia Tautkus 8 of 8