TO PLEASE and APPEASE: Ritual Sacrifice in Mesoamerica. By Don Wiley June 2013 Parkville, Maryland

TO PLEASE and APPEASE: Ritual Sacrifice in Mesoamerica By Don Wiley June 2013 Parkville, Maryland

TO PLEASE and APPEASE: Ritual Sacrifice in Mesoa,nerica Sacrifice is the voluntary giving up something of value. The object of value does not necessarily mean a gift of cash or monetary value. A child's prized toy given up freely for the benefit of someone else may be an honest and sincere sacrifice, even viewed as one of great value. It may be a one-eyed stuffed animal with a missing ear and leg. What is of value to one person may not be seen as having value to someone else. In order to be a genuine sacrificial gift, the object needs only to have value to the donor. Sometimes the sacrifice can be non-material. In baseball, for example, a sacrifice occurs when a batter makes the decision to give up his chance to get on base by laying down a bunt that advances a runner or sending a long fly ball to the outfield that scores a run by a base runner. Usually, however, it is the manager that makes the decision for the batter so, technically according to the definition given here, the batter did not make a sacrifice, the manager did! That assumes the batter was successful in the attempt. Another example may be military service, though it is not the same as the previous example. The person is likely to be separated from family and friends for an extended period that can cause some animosity between those at home and those away. In extreme cases, sadly, the service member may give his/her life for the cause being served. This is the ultimate sacrifice. In a religious sense, sacrifice is the action to please or appease God in the Judeo-Christian tradition, or multiple gods of polytheistic traditions. Sacrifice is usually to request some form of relief from a calamity or a favor of some kind. Relief from drought or flood, the cessation of a volcanic eruption or the curing of illness or infirmity are examples of a requested favor. Sacrifice of some kind may be expected by the gods in return for providing something. That might be a bountiful crop, victory in warfare, or perhaps many children, especially sons. There is also the necessary sacrifice for thanksgiving in the event the previous offering was accepted or the wish granted. And there is also the sacrifice as a penance for something done by the petitioner. The Bible makes frequent reference to sacrifice. In the Book of Mark, Jesus comments on the value of sacrifice when a poor widow offers two small copper coins, worth about a penny. "Truly, I say to you, this poor widow has put in more than all those who are contributing to the treasury. For they all contributed out of their abundance; but she out of her poverty has put in everything she had, her whole living" (RSV, Mark 12: 41-44). Human and animal sacrifice is another issue that receives considerable mention in the Bible account. Both forms seem to present us with an enigma. First look to the Cain and Abel story, two brothers, the sons of Adam and Eve. It came time for the two to provide offerings to their God. Abel, the youngest brother and a fanner, burned his offering of farm produce which was accepted by God. Cain, a pastoralist, offered a "firstling" from his flock. It was rejected. Further, we are told that Abel was held in regard by God while Cain and his offering was not (RSV, Genesis 4: 3-5). The reason given for the rejection was not the sacrifice itself but Cain's "sinfulness." Then later in the saga of early Biblical events, Abraham is instructed by God to sacrifice his son, Isaac. Just as Abraham is about to carry out this dastardly act, God intervenes and halts

the ritual. In place of Abraham's son, God shows Abraham a ram ensnared in near-by bushes. This animal becomes a substitute offering (RSV Genesis 22: 1-13). Some have viewed this event as a rejection of human sacrifice. However, God had distinctly forbid the Hebrew people from imitating their heathen neighbors by offering up human beings as sacrifices. (See Leviticus 20: 2-5 and Deuteronomy 18: 10). But then there is the case of Jephthah and his only daughter. Jephthah was at battle with the Ammonites and he, Jephthah, prayed to God to give him victory. If he succeeded, Jephthah promised to sacrifice the first person to greet him upon his return home. To his great woe, Jephtah's only daughter and only child, rushed to great him. The daughter was killed (RSVJudg 11: 30-40). It appears that human sacrifice is acceptable in some instances but not in others. In any case, human sacrifice is brutal and final. Human sacrifice is murder. Among other questions, historians generally seek answers to the question, when. Geographers on the other hand - of which I am one by training and trade - try to answer the question, why. And not only why, but how. Those are the questions to be answered here. In another time and a half-a-world away from the Biblical scene, blood sacrifice was a common practice. The offering could be the life of another, sometimes, but likely only on rare occasions, there could be the life of the petitioner himself, and there were frequent blood offerings via auto-sacrifice. This practice became known as bloodletting. It is impossible to tell exactly when and where blood sacrifice began. It is probably safe to say that blood sacrifice began soon after humans realized the importance of blood for the human existence and humans began to practice religion. Here in the Americas some three and a half thousand years ago, the Olmec were practicing blood sacrifice. Figure 1 Monument 1 from Laguna de los Cerros. At the top, a circular hole, about 5 inches deep and 8 inches in diameter has been cut. "Unquestionably it served as a receptacle for some kind of liquid (water or blood), like the cuauhxicallis of the Toltec-Mexican period." (Bernal, 1996, pg 104) An interesting comment on this monument reads, "... how can we begin to guess the meaning of a captivating monstrous oddity such as the so-called "Monument 1" the purported "Head of a Supernatural Being." (Baker, Kenneth, San Francisco Chronicle, 2011) Photo: Xalapa Anthropology Museum; Xalapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico Even before the Olmec, there is evidence of human sacrifice and cannibalism in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico. Excavations reveal those activities occurred about 6000 BC. At a small village near what is now Mexico City, certain marks on discarded human bones are evidence of ritual cannibalism. Further, a human skull was found with two vertebra still attached. 2

This is taken to indicate ritual decapitation. These practices carried throughout Mesoamerica until The Conquest. (Markman & Markman, 1994, pg 39). But we need to answer the question of why the early Mesoamericans began the practice of blood sacrifice. The story really begins with creation. At the very heart of our understanding of human or self-sacrifice, also known as auto-sacrifice or bloodletting, is our recognition that there are alternate ways of considering phenomena. Not that we in this 21 " century condone either practice of sacrifice, but that we consider and understand why a particular behavior occurs in a particular society, in a particular place, at a particular time. Consider too the reaction of the Conquistadores upon their arrival in this hemisphere. They had to be appalled and experienced revulsion at events they witnessed, especially the removal of hearts and decapitation ceremonies. Modern-day Westerners have the same reaction but, consider the events of the Inquisition and the Crusades. And even the witch burnings in Salem, Massachusetts. So, there are similarities to the extent at which Europeans and Mesoamericans treated each other in the name of religion. In the situation in Mesoamerica, the act of sacrifice was initiated by the gods themselves. While each of the various traditions differs somewhat in the details, all have familiar aspects. It was not only actions of the gods, but it was also the phenomenon of corn and its growth pattern that gave rise to Mesoamerican sacrifice traditions. Thanksgiving appears to be the single most powerful emotion that created the reason or even the mood for sacrifice. Celebrations associated with calendar events, such as the end of the 52-year cycles, appear to be another strong venue for sacrifice. For the Quiche Maya, and indeed the most, if not all, of the Maya realm, the Popol Vuh is the source of knowledge of culture and life. Many Westerners believe that this book, often called the Maya Bible, was written after the Spanish Conquest and was largely influenced by Spanish thought. However, recent excavations at El Mirador, a Maya ruin deep in the Guatemala rain forest near the border with Mexico, a stucco panel has been unearthed that reveals a stunning historical element. That panel was created sometime in the late Pre-classic period about 300 BC to AD 150 (Brown, 2011, pg 36). The panel clearly shows the Hero Twins of Maya legend of creation as recorded in the Popol Vuh, carrying the head of their father to the surface from Xibalba. The father, Hun Hunahpu, also known as the Maize God, had been sacrificed by the lords of the underworld. This new evidence predates the Popol Vuh story by at least 1,400 years. So much for Spanish influence! In the Popol Vuh account of creation of the Maya, the gods made several attempts at the creation of beings that could worship and honor their (the beings) creators (the gods). On the surface this sounds like an unusual circumstance for such powerful entities as 'the gods'. But for Jews and Christians in today's world, the situation should not be unusual at all. They will readily recall that God created man on the sixth day of creation. But soon after that God realized that he was not yet finished. The first man needed a companion and woman was created from one of the first man's ribs. Every time I think of this story I am reminded of a t-shirt I saw in Costa Rica during the spring of 1992. Emblazoned across the chest of an attractive young woman was the 3

message, "In the beginning, God created man. Then he corrected his mistake." Even the allpowerful God needed two tries! According to the Popol Vuh, the gods made four tries at creating the optimum creation. The first creation had no beings as worthy of worship and praise to there creators. Then came beings of mud and of wood and rushes but, neither of the two creations neither remembered nor worshiped the gods. So the gods made beings from a paste made from maize - corn - and water. One of the conditions of creation was the obligation of the created to worship and sacrifice to the creators. Among the highland Maya, Tohil is identified in the Popol Vuh as their patron god who would guide them in all of their movements or wanderings from the time of their inception (Miller and Taube, 1997, pg 170). After their creation as people, all of the tribes of Maya gathered at Tollan (Tula), also known as the Place of Seven Caves, to receive their languages and their gods, among them was Tohil (Native American Encyclopedia). He is also the god that provided fire to the Maya. Tohil would provide fire only if the Maya would suckle him. In this case, to suckle means to provide human hearts for the sustenance of the god (Tedlock, 1996, pg 156). Figure 2 Tohil Giving Fire to the Maya. Notice the Maya presenting Tohil with a sacrifice of a human heart. You can see the presenter with his knife in his left hand and the victim's heart squirting blood in his right hand. The heart has been removed in the traditional manner, from the side, under the armpit. Tohil is seen with blood dripping from his mouth Painting by Diego Rivero (18 86-1957). Image from Native American Encyclopedia. Most North Americans have the misconception that all of tropical areas are very hot and wet. Most have little knowledge of how altitude affects temperature. So, among the highland Quiche Maya, cold is a very real sensation. Cold and fuel for cooking can only be alleviated by fire. Does anyone think that the Maya would jeopardize their access to fire by denying Tohil his hearts and blood from sacrificial victims? I think not! It was Quetzalcoatl who gave maize to the Aztecs. Seems that a chance meeting with a red ant is how Quetzalcoatl learned of the existence of this new plant. The ant told the god where to find such a plant. The ant said that the maize kernels could be found hidden in the mountain that contained many different foods. Quetzalcoatl changed himself into a black ant, found the precious corn and took a sample back to the gods. After all had sampled and enjoyed the maize,

the mountain was split open by a lightning bolt and the corn, along with the other foods, was given to humans in exchange for human blood (Markman & Markman, 1994, pg 182). The Maya version differs in the details. It was a group of animals - a fox, a coyote, a parrot, and a crow - that brought the news of this plant to the gods. The ground corn was mixed with the blood of a tapir and a serpent to make humans (Markman & Markman, 1994, pg 183). The corn plant itself provides an explanation for the need for sacrifice of blood and death of sacrificial victims. As we know, corn cannot reproduce itself. This is because of the husk that surrounds the kernels and the ear. The husk must be stripped away and the corn kernels must be dried before the seeds are planted and the new corn is reborn. So sacrifice becomes a vehicle for transformation of ones body and a continuation of the human race. During these various acts of sacrifice, whether it is auto-sacrifice or human sacrifice, a petitioner may envision images of the gods, deceased warriors, or an ancestor. He or she can experience transformation from this world into the world of the gods and even become one of the gods himself by the sacrificial act and or impersonation of the god. Sacrifice becomes essential for continued existence of all of the many cultures of Mesoamerica. After an insult from some of the captains of Cortes - they had declared the gods they had seen as "evil things that are called devils' - Motecuhzoma admonished Cortes and described the importance of the gods. He said, 'Señor Malinche [Cortes], if I had known that you would have said such defamatory things I would not have shown you my gods, we consider them to be very good, for they give us health and rains and good seed times and seasons and as many victories as we desire, and we are obliged to worship them and make sacrifices, and I pray you do not say another word to their dishonour.'" (Diaz del Castillo, 1956, pg 221) There is no question about how the Ancients viewed their gods. All of the various acts of sacrifice were considered necessary for the survival of the specie. The gods were the source of fire, food and life itself. The sacrificial events were also extremely painful, in most instances, only ear piercing was probably not as painful as other means. Probably the New Fire ceremony and other heart removal practices were among the most painful along with decapitation. Imagine hacking through bone with a stone or obsidian knife to get at the heart or spinal column. Death was not instantaneous. The victim endured, at least for a time. There had to be significant pain associated with tongue piercing. Everyone has experienced biting their tongue while eating; remember how you winced at that moment? And the piercing of ones genitalia would have been no pleasant feeling either. All were very bloody events, some more so than others. Bernal Diaz del Castillo (1956, pg 223) describes the sacrifice scene in Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City) this way: "A little way apart from the great Cue [pyramid] there was another small tower which was also an Idol House, or a true hell, for it had at the opening of one gate a most terrible mouth such as they depict, saying that such there are in hell. The mouth was open with great fangs to devour souls, and here too were some groups of devils and bodies of serpents close to the door, and a little way off was a place of sacrifice all blood-stained and black with smoke, and encrusted with blood, and there were many great ollas and cántaros and tinajas [large pottery vessels for cooking and/or water] of water inside the house, for it was here that they cooked the flesh of the unfortunate Indians who were sacrificed, which was eaten by the priests. There were also near the

place of sacrifice many large knives and chopping blocks, such as those on which they cut up meat in the slaughter houses.... I always called that house 'the Infernal Regions.' "Let us go on beyond the court to another Cue where the great Mexican princes were buried, where also there were many Idols, and all was full of blood and smoke, and it had other doorways with hellish figures, and then near that Cue was another full of skulls and large bones arranged in perfect order, which one could look at but could not count, for there were too many of them. The skulls were by themselves and the bones in separate piles. In that place there were other Idols... there were priests with long robes of black cloth... The hair of these priests was very long and so matted that it could not be separated or disentangled, and most of them had their ears scarified, and their hair was clotted with blood." Diaz del Castillo continues for several more paragraphs with his description of the horror and disgust at what he witnessed. But you get the picture. For all Mesoamericans, the calendar served several functions to orchestrate daily life and ritual. The calendar influenced the time to plant, it tracked the movements of celestial bodies across the sky, dictated when certain religious rituals would be required, (Miller, 1997, pg 46) and even the naming of children born during particular periods. The calendar foretold the destiny of some children. Actually there were two calendars, the 260-day ritual calendar and the 365-day solar calendar. It is the blending or meshing of these two calendars that create what we term the Calendar Round. The calendar round is the result of the two calendars aligning back at the beginning date. This occurs once every 52-years. Consequently this becomes a very important date. The Aztec, or Mexica as they called themselves, called this event, the completion of the 52- year calendar round, xiuhmolpilli or "Binding of the Years." This was the impetus for the New Fire Ceremony and the sacrifice that accompanied this date. -j IN T Figure 3 Representation of a New Fire Ceremony. From Codex Borbonicus, pg 34 Prior to the night of the actual sacrifice, the community carried out considerable preparations. All fires, in homes and in temples, were extinguished or allowed to burn out. Household cooking pottery was broken and new ones made for the coming new year. Homes were rid of extraneous materials, there was fasting and bloodletting, and silence. No work was done and fields were unattended and markets were deserted. Women that were with child were hidden away in granaries or hidden behind a pile of filled sacks. One thought was that the women were contaminated and should be hidden while another source claims that the granary idea was so that the fertility of the women would be transferred to the next maize crop. "[Children] born during this time were stigmatized, and all commoners shielded their faces with blue masks (Miller, 1997, pg 87; Phillips, 2008, pg 125; wikipedia New Fire ceremony; and others). Keep in mind, readers, that this ending of the calendar cycle was a very perilous time for the Aztecs and all of their predecessors as well. Evidence supports the idea that the new Fire 6

Ceremony was inherited by the Aztec and likely had its origin in Central Mexico, possibly Teotihuacán (Elson, 2001, pgs 157-174 and von Winning, c.1987, pgs 17-20). In any case, this ceremony was a critical event in the preservation of Aztec society. If the New Fire Ceremony was not carried out properly, or if it was not successful, the sun would not complete its nightly journey through the Underworld and the world would be cast into darkness for the next 52 years (Miller, 1997, pg 87 and Carrasco, 1990, pg 97). As the sun was sinking into the western horizon and r into the Underworld, perhaps for the last time, darkness was creeping ever higher in the eastern sky. Apprehension among the Aztecs was on the increase. Priests were assembled, the captive warrior, previously chosen by the great Motecuhzoma himself, was summoned and the king waved the procession out of the sacred area of Tenochtitlan and towards Citlaltepec (Hill of the Star). When the procession arrived at the top of the mountain and assembled at the small temple previously constructed there, they began to anxiously watch the heavens. They were looking for ' signs that the star group known to the Aztecs as Tianquiz, and to us moderns as the Pleiades, would pass overhead. And then it happened. Figure 4 I Representation of the New Fire kindling. As predicted, it was midnight and suddenly the Image from Florentine Codex silence throughout the region was shattered by the eerie I screams, issuing trom the sacnncial victim, roarea across the Mesoamerican landscape. The priests had split open the warrior's chest and pulled the heart from his shivering body. Blood was everywhere. The priests then retrieved a fire drill and a small, soft-wood board, and began to kindle a fire in the open chest cavity of the victim. Meanwhile at Templo Mayor and across the region, all eyes were fixed on the top of Citlattepec for signs of fire. Citlaltepec had been selected years ago and a small temple had been constructed at the top. The summit was visible from miles around. While the priests were struggling with creating fire, see Figure 4, others readied the year Bundles. No sooner than the fire had been ignited, other priests began to feed the New Fire with the Year Bundles into the growing fire (refer back to Figure 3). Year Bundles were a sacred symbol, different from merchant bundles, and were round bundles of sticks or reeds tied with large knots. Shouts of joy and thanksgiving reverberated across the countryside as the fire became visible. The sun was now guaranteed to rise every morning for the next 52 years. Runners then carried the fire brands from the mountain-top fire and re-lit fires in the community: first in the two temples atop Templo Mayor, then all of the other temples throughout the city of Tenochtitlan. Finally the fires in individual households were re-lit. A few days later the ceremony was completed with the burying of stone sculptures of the Year Bundles, see Figure 5 (Carrasco, 1999, pg 97; Miller, 1997, pg 87; and others). 7

Figure 5 A stone sculpture of the sacred Year Bundle. These sculptures were buried a few days after the sacrifice and concluded the New Fire Ceremony. Image from Museo National de AntropologIa Photo: MichelZabé The festival of Xipe Totec, "Our Lord the Flayed One" was no less gruesome. Tlaeaxipehualiztli, as the ceremony was known to the Aztecs, likely had its beginnings with the Zapotec in the Valley of Oaxaca (Miller, 1997, pg 188 and Markman, 1994, pg 13). Being a male fertility god in the realm usually assigned to female goddesses, Xipe Totec is an anomaly in the pantheon of Mesoamerican deities. Figure 6 On the left is an oblique view of the god Xipe Totec wearing the flayed skin of a sacrificed warrior captive. Notice the flayed hands hanging from the god's wrists. The feet are not shown having been discarded. He is also wearing a flayed skin mask. On the right is a view of the god's back. Notice how the flayed skin is tied in the back much in the manner of a modem hospital gown. Left image: Xipe Totec, god ofplanting and springtime. Hollow ceramic statue. Photo: Aztec Art - Jennie Chastain ht!p://ant3l45aztec.wikispaces.com/aztec+art (accessed 05/20/2013) Right Image: Unusual Aztec Statue: Xipe Totec Photo: SLA YER69, a member ofabovetopsecret. corn hltp://www.abovetopsecret.com/fourni/thread7l4953/pg2#pid 11563481 (accessed 05/20/2013)

There can be no question as to the importance of his role in agriculture, but also the symbolism associated with the growth of maize. In the Aztec hymn "Song of Xipe Totec Iouallauan," his golden cape is identified and the relationship between the god and maize is announced (Markman, 1994, pg 205). The symbolism is expanded upon. While ripened corn is still in the fields, but not quite ready for harvest, the stalks are broken and the ripening ears of corn are inverted. This allows the ears to remain on the stalks while keeping falling rain from entering the husks. The ears then can continue to ripen without rotting from moisture that now cannot invade the ear. The husks turn into the golden cape while still on the maize stalk. Not only are the ears themselves enclosed in the golden cape, but the individual kernels are wrapped as well. Consequently the maize kernel must "die" before the new shoot of the life-giving maize plant can emerge. Once again we witness the transformation of the "dead" to the "living;" that is the concept that death produces life. Remember that in the Aztec story of creation, it was Quetzalcoatl that sprinkled his own blood upon the bones of a departed generation in order to create this current generation of humans. Figure 7 A Xipe Totec impersonator Photo: Courtesy of the Walters Art Museum As we have seen previously, much of the ritual surrounding the New Fire Ceremony took place prior to the actual sacrifice ritual. So it was with the ritual of Xipe Totec "Our Lord the Flayed One" except that Xipe Totec's ritual continued for another 20 days - the ancient equivalent of one month in Mesoamerica - after the sacrifice. The Tlacaxipeualiztli - Feast of the Flaying of Men - began with the selection of those to be sacrificed. Selected captives, usually warriors or slaves, were ritually washed and dressed as images of Xipe Totec. This was as long as 40 days prior to the sacrifice day. The captives were engaged in gladiator-like combat with their captors and made to dance with them as well. The captives were given new names and then on that fateful day, the victims were marched to the top of the temple of Xipe, thrown across the stone altar of sacrifice and their hearts ripped from their bodies. Like the Fire Ceremony, blood was everywhere. Lucky for the victims, they were now dead when the flaying began. I cannot even imagine the excruciating pain if one were still alive when this part of the ritual began. With the skinning complete, the bodies were thrown down the steps of the pyramid to the bottom and the body butchered with the pieces distributed among the captors' families for ritual consumption. But the ceremony was not over. The flayed skin of the victims was donned by their captors like the golden cloak of Xipe Totec and maize, who then cavorted around the city, soliciting gifts from the citizens. This lasted for 20 days. The flayed skin was decaying, literally Fu ll

rotting from the wearer's body. And it surely must have smelled! After the 20 day period what was left of the flayed skin was ceremoniously buried in a cave, the origin of life by some accounts (Carrasco, 1990, pg 140 and Miller, 1997, pg 188). Figure 6, above, is to me, an enigmatic figure. Reents-Budet (2012, pg 53) describes this figure as a captive warrior, wearing the flayed skin of a sacrificed victim. The thought that he is a captive is indicated by the noose around his neck and the cords around his waist. However, if he is a captive, why was he permitted to keep his valuable "jaguar" helmet? Further, if that is the flayed skin he is wearing, as Reents-Budet suggests, why is the chest skin not split where the heart had been removed? In addition, usually the penis is covered and is not seen (Miller, 1997, pg 188). Also, the flayed skin is worn by the victor, not the vanquished. Human sacrifice was seemingly carried out on a frequent basis. One of the most important events in Mesoamerica, from Olmec times to the present, is the ballgame. This was another bloody affair with the bailgame loser also losing his head, heart, or maybe even his intestines to the gods. Gratefully, sacrifice is no longer a part of the ritual connected with the event. Ritual sacrifice as a result of loss in the ballgame certainly has serious religious overtones; it was derived from the very creation of the world. But there is strong evidence that sacrifice associated with the ballgame also had serious political implications as well. These sacrifices helped to solidify political power and prestige (Wilkerson, 1991, pg 51). (I suggest that readers find a copy of The Mesoamerican Bailgame and review the illustration on page 52-53. It depicts a palace scene as 13 Rabbit, Lord of El TajIn, looks on as a disembowelment takes place.) Figure 8 Sacrifice scene from South Balicourt at El TajIn. The priest wielding a flint knife is preparing to begin a decapitation or heart removal of the victim. Or, he could be getting ready to disembowel the victim. All three sacrificial procedures were in use after a defeat in the baligame. Photo. Tom Aleto Perhaps the best known rendering of a baligame sacrifice is the one carved at the Great Ballcourt at Chichén Itzá. Shown below as Figure 9, six serpents represent blood squirting from the victim's torso. The decapitated head of the victim can be seen in the left hand of the victor, to the left of the large ball. Adjacent to the bailcourt is seen Figure 10, the Tzompantli also at Chichén Itzá. This monument, next to the Great Ballcourt is decorated with relief carvings of skulls and the actual skulls were displayed on spikes atop the walls. 10

Figure 9 Sacrifice scene at the Great Bailcourt at Chichén Itzá Photo: Don Wiley F '1 Figure 10 Tzompantli, skulirack, at Chichén Itzá. Photo: Don Wiley As we have previously seen, sometimes the bodies were trussed up and rolled down the pyramid steps to be dismembered and the body parts distributed for eating. Sometimes the heads were molded inside of the large balls so as to make the balls lighter. In either case, the "peace loving" Mesoamericans were shown to be a brutal society. The sacrificial victims were generally slaves or captive enemies, even Lords of rival communities, particularly if they lost in the baligame. If human sacrifice was brutal and painful, consider the various acts of self-sacrifice or auto-sacrifice as the process is generally known. Auto-sacrifice was, perhaps, one of the minor influences for the success of the Spanish during The Conquest. The major cause was the many alliances made by the invaders with the suppressed communities surrounding the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. But the Spaniards would describe the sacrifice of their lord in the person of Jesus, 11

who sacrificed his life for the good of his people. The Mesoamericans could understand this idea, but on a smaller scale. Jesus sacrificed his life while the Mesoamerican lords and their ladies would only sacrifice their blood. A significant difference of magnitude to be sure! Perhaps some had forgotten the sacrifice of Tecuciztecatl and Nanahuatzin who sacrificed themselves by leaping into a fire in order to create the sun and the moon (Wiley, 2013, pg 12). While all acts of sacrifice tend to serve the same purpose, to please and appease the gods, there is one significant difference between human and auto-sacrifice. Human sacrifices in Mesoamerica were large, very public festival affairs attended by large numbers of people. Autosacrifice, on the other hand, tended to be private or semi-private events. Two examples are presented here in support of this idea. The region of the Copán Valley in what is now Honduras certainly had the population to support very large crowds at sacrifice spectacles. There were at least 31 communities, including the center called Quirigua in what is now Guatemala, within 35 miles of Copán (Garver, 1989). We are also aware that population was on the increase around AD 700-800, generating huge pressures on available resources (Gallankamp, 1985, pg 150). These pressures were notable at the dedication of Alter Q at Copán in July of AD 763. At that time the new and last king of Copán, Yax Pac, had 15 jaguars sacrificed to honor his 15 predecessors. Of significant interest is that 2 of the sacrificed animals were juveniles, hardly a fitting tribute for a deceased king. Obviously the animal population was under duress from an increased human presence (Fash, 1993, pg 170). Further, William Fash (1992, pg 5) estimated the population of Copán itself at about 24,000, a figure he later revised to 8,000-12,000 and a "Copán pocket" population of 20,000 in AD 800 (Fash, 1993, pg 111). It is very difficult to assess what population figures might have been. This is mainly because of lack of precise boundaries or even definitions of areas on the part of the various estimators. However, J. Adan Cueva (2000, pg 32) has estimated the population of the Copán Valley at 200,000 at its height. My conclusion is that there was a large population in the region at the height of growth, a population sufficient to support very large crowds at spectacular religious affairs. So, why is this important, or even relevant? We know that human sacrifices generated large crowds, even whole populations. Yet at Copán, auto-sacrifice was at best a semi private affair, the masses were excluded. At the north end of the East Court enclosure at Copãn, is Building 22. It was within the inner room of this building, it has long been believed by most scholars, that kings committed their acts of self-sacrifice. The ritual was in private and well beyond the view of the relatively few spectators that might have been privileged enough to gain access to the East Court. I have heard of only one estimate of the capacity of the East Court, that estimate was only 3,000 persons at most. And the access was restricted too. In order to gain access to the East Court, one had to pass through a long corridor between Building 16 and structures to the south, and a sharp left turn and enter a passageway between Buildings 16 and 17. Even at full capacity, the spectators had to include dignitaries from Copán as well as those from surrounding villages. There was no room for the common folk, commoners were excluded from viewing these important events. At Yaxchilán it was not much different. 12

One of the most famous relief sculptures from the Maya period, is the one known as Lintel 24. This doorway lintel was described by Sylvanus Morley as "the most beautiful example of sculptured door lintel" (Miller, 1999, pg 18). That sculpture is shown below as Figure 11. Lintel 24 is one of a set of four that are set above the doorways in front of Building 23. That building sits on the southwest side of the main plaza at Yaxchilán in Chiapas. It appears to be only slightly raised above the main plaza and is in plain sight of all (Hunter, 1986, pg 156 157). Only one of the lintels remains in place. The three lintels appear to represent a series of closely related events but, in fact, the events depicted are actually widely apart in actual time (Miller, 2004, pg 99). But our interest here is in Lintel 24. / Shown in profile is Lady Xoc, principal wife of the king, Shield : F. Jaguar. She is shown performing an act A l. of self-sacrifice by pulling a cord that -. has thorns embedded, through a hole in : 4. her tongue. This is the main form of? bloodletting, along with ear piercing, - : - for Maya royal women. One can only imagine the excruciating pain she is enduring. Have you ever bitten your Figure 11 tongue? The reason for the sacrifice is Lintel 24 from Yaxchilán not clear, but the date of the event is Photo: Justin Kerr. Used with permission. known from the glyphic text, October 28, AD 709. In front of the kneeling, or seated, Lady Xoc is her husband and king, Shield Jaguar. He is holding a flaming torch over Lady Xoc, indicating that the scene must be taking place in a darkened room or at night (Schele, 1986, pg 186). I would speculate that the ritual was in both venues, in a dark room and at night. I have been in many similar rooms in bright daylight and find that the rooms are not totally dark. In fact, many have walls covered with modern graffiti. But the fact that the ritual was likely being carried out in an enclosed room makes the scene impossible for the masses to witness. It was a very private moment for the king and his wife. The status of Lady Xoc cannot be disputed. She is attired in her exquisite huipil that is adorned with many decorative elements. However, in both of the cited examples, it was very possible or even likely, that the blood offering was burned outdoors in full view of the audience. 13

Auto-sacrifice was a very personal ritual. As we have seen above, the rite was likely carried out in private. But not the entire ritual, which encompassed not just the actual act of bloodletting, but the offering of that blood sent to the gods. The bloodletting act was the painful part. Sensitive body parts were pierced with a sharp object and the blood allowed to drip onto bark paper. That paper was then burned and the smoke generated would carry the offering to the heavens where the gods lived. Most organs used for bloodletting were the ears by men and women, the tongue for women, and the favorite for men was the penis. The smoke issuing from the burning blood-offering sometimes produced a visual phenomenon that was called a "vision serpent." The petitioner was sometimes in a trance-like state from the intense pain inflicted by the ritual and sometimes the state was enhanced by the use of hallucinogens. The petitioner may have fasted, deprived oneself of sleep, and danced to the point of exhaustion to arrive at this condition (Miller, 2004, pg 100). For additional reading on the serpent, see Wiley's "The Role of the Serpent in Mesoamerica," September, 2009. Most will agree, I'm sure, that renditions of acts of sacrifice were a major theme of early Mesoamerican artists. Images were carved in stone, rendered on various pottery articles and portrayed in clay figures. Figure 12 Roll-out photo of ruler with perforator who lets blood onto bark paper and offers the stained paper to a priest. The priest then offers the bloodsoaked paper to a reclining idol. Two attendants observe. Photo: Justin Kerr. Used with permission. Figure 13 Another enigmatic figure letting blood. He is wearing a head piece as if he were a ruler or noble of some rank, yet he wears a noose around his neck as if he is a captive. Would a captive be allowed to let blood prior to the human sacrifice? Perhaps he is wearing the noose to demonstrate his humility during the penitent ritual. Compare to Figure 7 on page 9. Photo: Justin Kerr. Used with vermission. K2l5J 14

The tools of auto-sacrifice were also brutal. Most commonly illustrated is the use of a stingray tail spine. Those spines are barbed so that removal would rip the flesh into shreds. Imagine the pain associated with that when inserted into ones genitalia. The only reasonable way to remove the spine after insertion would be to pull it completely through the flesh. Other perforators, or bloodletters, were jade, obsidian, and likely carved bone. Often the perforators were incised with glyphs, scenes, and frequently the owner's name. This would indicate multiple usages by the owner. These tools were then entombed with the owner after his death, indicating likely use in the afterlife. Jade perforators that have been found frequently have blunt ends. Perhaps the tips had become broken or maybe these were decorative items. It cannot be denied that bloodletting was a very important ritual. But was this ritual reserved for only the kings and special elite persons? I hope I am not alone in the belief that commoners also participated in this practice. The tools, perhaps, were not stingray spines or jade, but simple devices such as maguey thorns. These are very sharp, woody, and hard items that would have been plentiful throughout the region. Figure 14 Left Jade perforator. Notice the incised lines on the blade simulating a stingray spine. Photo: Justin Kerr. Used with permission Figure 15 Below Olmec perforator in the shape of a hummingbird. Note the broken tip. Photo: Dumbarton Oaks collection For me, among the most intricate of Maya art, or Mesoamerican art in general, are the carved stingray spines. In the illustration below as Figure 16, look at the intricate carving on such a small item. Surely this artifact was a precious heirloom in a royal household. Figure 16 Engraved stingray spine used as a perforator Photo: CONACULTA-INAH Jorge Vertiz Cl ILIIA.t 1 15

In the reading of this monograph, you became aware of the term "vision serpent." Briefly, a vision serpent is the manifestation one sees when he/she experiences during the trancelike state induced by auto-sacrifice, especially when accompanied with the use of a hallucinogenic. Below, is one such vision.. Figure 17 This is Lintel 25 from Yaxchilán Here Lady Xoc, the same person seen in Figure 11, page 13, is experiencing the appearance of a vision serpent. Some now identify this creature as a centipede or a serpent-centipede. Regardless of how one views this manifestation, the petitioner sees an ancestor, a warrior, of perhaps one of the gods in the maw (mouth) of the serpent that is rising in smoke from the burning of the bloody paper of her offering. Be aware that this event at Yaxchilán is not a continuation of the event taking place in Figure 11. The date on this lintel is prior to Lintel 24. Photo: Justin Kerr. Used with permission. There are those that believe auto-sacrifice is still being practiced now in the 21St century. Within the Roman Catholic Church there is a small, controversial group called Opus Dei. Most readily understand that the sacrifices, or mortifications, required of members involve "doing good works." There are those who believe that some members still wear the cilice, a small chainlike device with studs that is worn around the thigh. The device, worn for about 2 hours a day, causes discomfort but does not induce bleeding. The organization became widely known in 2003 through the publication of the novel, The Da Vinci Code, by Dan Brown. Figure 18 A cilice that is reported to be worn by some members of the group, Opus Dei. Photo: wikipedia.orglwiki/controversies... Sacrifice was a cruel event as we in the 215t century view it today. But put yourself in that time and that place. For a great number of people living today, they are Christian, Jew, Muslim, 16

Shinto Buddhist, or one of the many other religions primarily because that's what their parents were. We are, in a part way, products of our environment. Not completely. To say we are completely dependent on our environment is to deny the idea of independent thought and action. In our present age, it seems only just to recognize the concept of "alternative realities." 17

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Miller, Mary Ellen. 1990. The Art of Mesoamerica from Olmec to Aztec. Thames and Hudson, Ltd. London. Native American Encyclopedia. htti):hnativeamericanencylo-oedia.com/tohil/. Accessed 04/23/2013. Phillips, Charles. 2008. Aztec and Maya. Metro Books. New York. Reents-Budet, Done. 2012. Exploring Art of the Ancient Americas. Trustees of the Walters Art Museum. Baltimore and D. Giles Limited, London. Schele, Linda and Mary Ellen Miller. 1986. The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art. Kimball Art Museum. Fort Worth. Von Winning, Hasso. C.1987. "The Binding of the Years and the New Fire in Teotihuacán. www.iai.spk-berlin.de/fileadmin/.../indianal.../5/ind-05-winning.pdf. (Note: this article is undated. I choose c.1987 based on the latest bibliography date of 1977) Wiley, Donald Andrew. 2013. "Creation: Science, Christianity, and Mesoamerican Concepts". 2013. Unpublished manuscript. (A copy may be obtained via email from the author at donawiley@comcast.net. Wilkerson, S. Jeffery. 1991. "And Then They Were Sacrificed." In The Mesoamerican Bailgame. Edited by Vernon L. Scarborough and David R. Wilcox. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson. http://wikipedia.orwwiki/new-fire-ceremon Accessed 04/18/2013 http://en.wikiiedia.org/wiki/controversies_abiut_opus_dei Accessed 06/09/2013 19