Rise and Growth of Socio-Religious Reform Movements in Nineteenth Century Maharashtra

Chapter Four Rise and Growth of Socio-Religious Reform Movements in Nineteenth Century Maharashtra 4.1 Introduction: The beginning of the nineteenth century brought new rule under the restrain of East India Company which established its rule in the Western India by defeating the last Peshwa Bajirao II in 1818. This was the beginning of modern Maharashtra as the new rule was based on secular and rational thinking. It was not merely military defeat of the Peshwas, but the Western Culture, superior in every field of life had defeated the stagnant Indian culture. 1 The rule of Peshwas is the most hated due to its closed nature and social rigidness even today and would remain in future also in Maharashtra people. The new rule was important from the point of view that it was going to educate indigenous people at least to meet the need of its administration. The education was to be imparted among people of India. But the case was different; the British Rule was colonial in nature and so always given importance to further its colonial interests. So the educational policy adopted by the British colonial Government was deliberately developed to educate upper caste elite people like the Brahmins. This was because the Brahmins exercised a total control over the rest of the lower castes, shudras, and untouchables, dalits and women by denying them the right to education. The Hindu society was based on caste system with its feature of hierarchy and patriarchy, which divides the people into hundreds of castes, of which some were regarded as untouchables, the most hatred from other castes and due to patriarchy and Manusmruti, a law book of the Hindus, women were denied all kinds of human rights. The Brahmins though less in number were 1 Rege M. P., (2002), Adhunik Maharashtratil Prabodhanparva, Pratima Prakashan, Pune, p. 10. 161

enjoying all kinds of privileges since ancient times by making knowledge as their monopoly. Thus the Brahmins were the most powerful and exercised a control over the society and have tradition of adopting with the new rulers so as to maintain their status and privileges in the society. So the Brahmins extended their support to the British Rule by acting as mediators between the rulers and the ruled. 4.2 Impact of the British Rule: On this background the British Government adopted the policy of appeasement of the Brahmins by favouring them in education and in the administrative set up. So in practice, the newly established British rule brought no sudden golden age of lower caste education. 2 But the new government definitely created a space and possibility for the educational development of the shudras, women and dalits by creating free and favourable atmosphere. On the other side Christian Protestant Missionaries played an important role in educating shudras and dalits though with the aims ofproselytization, they especially concentrated on the Dalits, the most exploited strata of the Hindu society, so as to fulfill their aims. Thus the English Education was introduced to Indians by the British Government and the missionaries with different aims of administrative needs and proselytization respectively. So the establishment of the British regime in Maharashtra in 1818 was a very important phenomenon in the history of modern Maharashtra. The English Education introduced by the new rule here was open to all irrespective of caste, creed, and gender. It brought modern ideas and concepts like liberty, equality, justice, humanity, democracy etc. which were very different in nature in the Indian religious atmosphere. These new concepts of humanity shackled the beliefs of newly educated Indians though mostly were Brahmins and they had to think over the social conditions of the Hindu society and conditions of women at least. 2 O Hanlon Rosalind, (1985), Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth-Century Western India, Cambridge University Press, first paperback edition by Permanent Black, (2002), Ranikhet, p. 5. 162

The most evident feature of the Indian society in the nineteenth century was marked by its caste based social structure with inequality of the castehierarchy. The salient features of the Indian society such as inequality based on the Varnas and caste-hierarchy, deviance of knowledge from the work, superstitious and dependence on god and supernatural powers, closed selfdependent rural life, untouchability and slavery on women were also found in the Maharashtra, which was not exception to the nature of Indian society. 3 The villages of Maharashtra, the Brahmins were clearly distinguishable from other castes and the Brahmins like kulkarni, joshi were most influential part of rural life. Kulkarni, the only person in village who could read and write, often acquired an influential position. 4 In Maharashtra the Peshwas supported the caste system by making it more and more rigid, and due to Peshwa s attempt to make it rigid, it became deep rooted in the society. The medieval common people were indulged in the concepts of status of clan, purity of caste and the pride of the watan, (feudal allotment of area to rule). 5 On such a critical background, for the first time with the advent of modern concepts,modernity entered in Maharashtra. The need for social change was realised to these newly educated Indians, and the English Education thus created the possibility of the Social Change in Maharashtra. Many factors such as cultural, economic, technological etc. are responsible for social change, but education plays vital role above all. But the Education is the key factor of transformation of society from one stage to another, becauseit affects the socio-political and economical structure of the society. So it is regarded as an important factor in bringing about social change. 3 Dixit Raja, (2009), Ekonisavya Shatkatil Maharashtra: Madhyamvargacha Uday, Diamond Publication, Pune, p. 38. 4 Kumar Ravinder, (1968), Western India in the Nineteenth Century, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, p. 31. 5 Pandit Nalini, (1974), Maharashtratil Rashtravadacha Vikas, Modern Book Depot, Pune, p. 4. 163

4.3 Nature of Colonialism and Educational Policy: Though the newly established British Government and Mountstuart Elphinstone in particularly, did not fever any radical social change in Maharashtra due to fear of disappointment of the elite upper caste Brahmins. Education, particularly the English Education introduced by the British, played very important role in fostering social change during the colonial period by bringing awareness among the Indian intelligentsia which became mainly responsible for the process of social change.the colonial rule was mainly responsible for the modern education and social change in many Asian, African countries. According to Gramsci, colonialism is an important part of the heritage of the most third world countries and in many instances still continues to influence relation between these countries and Western nations not only in the sphere of economic but also the domain of culture. 6 The education is considered as the most important ideological state apparatus devised by the ruling classes to confirm theirideas and interests. 7 As the colonialism had its own interests and so the British rulers need the mediators between them and the indigenous people to foster own economic, socio-cultural relations in new land the rulers deliberately create a class of the Brahmins as mediators by giving them modern education. The newly educated Brahmins proved as good mediators in achieving the colonial interests, as it was trained by the modern education. According to Ravinder Kumar, Elphinstone s most striking contribution was his policy towards education, which took account of the deep hold of traditional values on the Brahmins of Maharashtra, and sought to win them over to liberal and rational ideas without alienating them from their own community. As a result of his policy the Brahmins of Maharashtra would able 6 Gramsci Antonio, (1988), Selections from Political Writings (1910-20), Lawrence and Wishart Co., London, p. 66. 7 Kamat A. R. (1985), Education and Social Change in India, Somaiya Publications, Mumbai, p. 9. 164

to acquire western values without weakening the fabric of society and without losing their sense of identity. Thus education played the significant role in spreading colonial ideas among indigenous people to fulfill colonial interests. 8 Though some political thinkers criticised the colonialism for fostering its own interests through educating mediators, at the other end, are many social scientists, politicians, educationalists and educational planners who consider education as a very important instrument of social change, especially in the context of the Third World countries. 9 But in its operational level, the system of education always benefits dominant strata of the society as compare to the lower caste people. The educational system works, both in forms and content, with decisive social bias heavily in favour of the upper or the dominant strata of the society. 10 But the education was not a subject that had attracted attention and respect even from the upper classes of old Jamindars and Sardars, the feudal chiefs, who had a great impact of medieval culture where education was regarded as the sole responsibility of the Brahmins only and so education was regarded as of low status by the elite classes except the Brahmins. 11 Education was used to create administrative employees by the colonial British Government by teaching young people with some minimum skills at least, like literacy and numeracy. One more factor was responsible for social change was that with the growth of modern economy, the role of education get changed and meant to train the youngsters with information, knowledge, skills and values for doing various jobs needed in the society. The economy began to influence the role, content, specialization of education accordingly. However the 8 Kumar Ravinder, (1968), Western India in the Nineteenth Century, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, p. 83. 9 Kamat A. R., (1985), Education and Social Change in India, Somaiya Publications, Mumbai, p. 9. 10 Ibid, p. 13. 11 Keer Dhananjay, (1964), Mahatma Jotirao Phooley: Father of the Indian Social Revolution, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, reprinted 2013, p. 11. 165

knowledge, values, skills acquired through English Education, apart from fulfilling the needs of the society, they were also affecting the socio-economic and political structure of the society. Thus the role of English Education was of immense importance in the history of modern India, because it is closely related to the process of social change. 4.4 Impact of the English Education: Education plays a vital role in bringing about overall social changes in the society including social change. It has a potential to generate rationalism among the educated people. The English education was secular, and based on scientific knowledge develops a rational and questioning mind in the educated people, which is very important for getting out of age old superstitious mentality and think rationally. The English Education introduced by the British Rule, proved to be a crucial factor in transformation of medieval Maharashtra into modern Maharashtra. It brought new western ideas of humanity, modern institutions and thoughts in India. With the establishment of the British Rule, the Christian missionaries played a vital role in educating most oppressed strata of the society Dalits and Women. The Christian missionaries started various schools for them and for the first time shudras; dalits and women were introduced with the English Education. The missionaries began their work of proselytization, and began to reform the evils of Indian society by serving for the downtrodden, exploited section of the Hindu society. Their crucial work in the fields of health and education paved the way for new trend of social reforms in Maharashtra. The materialistic and technical reforms were introduced in India by the Western culture. It also brought a new just administration and judicial system based on liberalism and the new codes based on personal dignity and liberty, were introduced here. It also introduced the press media for the communication, educational institutes based on secularism, charitable institutes, which brought about the transformation in the mental and cultural 166

values of the Indians. The western ideas, modern education, arts, western literature were introduced in the educational syllabi and this brought a tremendous transformation in the minds of the newly educated Indians. The modern concepts like liberty, equality, fraternity, justice, liberalism etc. impressed the native youth and ultimately gave rise to social reformism in Maharashtra. Finally a nationwide movement for socio-religious reforms was started with the establishment of many socio-religious reform institutes and newspapers, periodicals etc. 12 This was possible due to the modern nature of the British Government, which was a part of superior Western culture. The Western culture developed the rational knowledge based on experience and logic and also developed the morality in the field of education, whereas Indian culture was lagging behind in developing rational education and knowledge. 13 The Nineteenth Century Maharashtra was marked by the transformation in almost all the fields of the life and thus was a landmark in the history of Maharashtra, modernity had entered in all fields, and many drastic changes in socio-economic life of people had begun to appear. The administrative changes introduced under new rule in the fields of revenue, judiciary, military, police etc. and thus the strong administrative set up was created. Communication system was improved by introducing telegraph and postal services, Railways and roads were built to improve transportation, new educational system was introduced, the western knowledge and culture was spread by introducing the use of printing press. 14 These facilities were introduced not for the development the country, which has become their colony, but to meet the need of the British colonialism.after all the reforms in almost every field of life could not benefit 12 Erande Ashok, (1989), Satyashodhak Dinmitrakar Mukundrao Patil: Kal v Kartutva, unpublished Ph. D. Thesis, Pune University, Pune, p. 9. 13 Rege M. P., (2002), Vivek Va Nyaya: Adhunik Maharashtratil Prabodhanparva, Pratima Prakashan, Pune, p. 11. 14 Bagade Umesh, (2010), Mahatma Jyotirao Phule, Shri Gandharva Ved Prakashan, Pune, p. 17. 167

only the rulers, but it also resulted in the awakening of the Indian minds and also in beginning of socio-reform movements by the social reformers. 4.5 Social Reformers and Socio-Religious Reform Movements: After completion of conquer of India, the British had spread the western ideas and thoughts in India, which impressed the Indian intelligentsia and realised the essence of socio-religious reforms in Indian society.this was because there was a complete domination of the religion on every aspect of life in the Indian society and so it had become essential to take some steps in the directions of socio-religious reforms. The nature of social and religious reform movements was mutually dependent. These socio-religious reform movements brought intellectual awakening, transformation, cultural advancement, and rise of new society and it was collectively termed as the Indian Renaissance. It was this Indian Renaissance which was the basis of the modern India. For giving a proper effect to this renaissance, a generation of Indian social reformers had contributed a lot. 4.5.1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772 A. D. - 1833 A. D.): Raja Ram Mohan Roy is regarded as the pioneer of Indian Renaissance for his remarkable contribution to socio-religious reform movements in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century in India. He was a great intellectual and had acquired both the eastern and the western knowledge. He was proficient in many languages including Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Hebrew, English, French, Greek, and Latin and also comparatively studied many religions. His study on the Vedant was remarkable and he published the translation of the Vedas and five important Upnishads in Bengali. He had to leave his home for condemning idol worship and for spreading the monotheism. He strongly opposed many evil practices, prevalent in the Indian society, including that of child marriage, polygamy and the most brutal custom of sati. The most brutal custom of sati, involves the self-immolation of a widow at her husband s funeral pyre. He 168

raised his voice against it through his journal Samvad Koumudi and He urged the Governor General Lord William Bentinck to take necessary steps and declare the practice of sati illegal. Bentinck then abolished the evil practice ofsati, by enacting a special Act in 1829. 15 Raja Ram Mohan Roy also raised his voice against the evil customs of child marriage and polygamy and also demanded equal inheritance rights for women. 16 He also opposed strongly to the rigid caste system. For spreading his socio-religious reforms he established an institution, Brahmo Samaj in 1828, which brought about the socioreligious reforms at institutional level. It advocated the equality in the society and secularism in religious matters. The new generation educated from Hindu College, established by him came forward with having the progressive vision and served the Bengal for next fifty years. Prassanna Kumar, Dwarkanath Tagor, Rasik Krushna Mallika, Dakshinanda Mukhopadhyay were some of his followers. 17 Raja Ram Mohan Roy supported modern education instead of oriental education and established Hindu College at Calcutta in 1817 with the help of David Hair. In 1826, he started Vedant College and tried to combine true to the roots theological doctrines along with modern rational lessons. 18 He was a strong supporter of free speech and expression and so advocated freedom to the press. He advocated human freedom, representative democracy and international peace.denunciation of polytheism, rejection of idolatry, love and service of the people, righteousness as only way of life; Fraternity, etc. were among its principles. 19 Brahmo Samaj worked for the awakening of the society and paved the way for rationalism by taking a firm striation and that the Vedas 15 Grover B. L., Grover S. (1983), A New Look at Modern Indian History, S. Chand and Co. Ltd., New Delhi, Thirteenth Edition, 1995, p. 183. 16 http://www.culturalindia.net/reformers/raja-ram-mohan-roy.html 17 Bhosale Narayan, (2008), Maharashtratil Strivishayak Sudharnavadache Sattakaran, The Taichi Prakashan, Pune, p. 239. 18 http://www.culturalindia.net/reformers/raja-ram-mohan-roy.html 19 Sardar G. B. (Ed.), (1960), Maharashtra Jeevan, Part 1, Joshi Lokhande Prakashan, Pune, reprint 1973, p. 163. 169

were not creation of God, but a creation of Men. He rejected the authority of the scriptures. The main theme of the Brahmo Samaj was to create a just society based on rationalism. 4.5.2. Swami Dayanand Saraswati and Arya Samaj (1824 1883): Swami Dayanand Saraswati was universally revered figure; he was not just a religious leader but left a deep impact on Indian society. During his childhood he realised the futility of idolatry. He established Arya Samaj in Mumbai in 1875. He stressed on purification of Hinduism and union of Hindu society. He advocated people to follow the Vedas and so he gave a message, Go back to the Vedas. He rejected the evil customs of the society such as caste system, child marriages, women s slavery, etc. by pointing out that these had no base in the Vedas. He also denounced the caste system, idolatry and rituals. He condemned on denying right to learn the Vedas to women and dalits. His work in socio-religious reformism and in education is continuously run by his followers even today. During the nineteenth century, Indian society was controlled by the religiosity, superstitious rituals, dominance of the Brahmin priests and so Swami Dayanand Sarswati condemned this and advocated karmasiddhant, belief in work. According to him, the God is just and he punishes everyone who misbehaves. 20 Though he rejected caste system based on inequality, he believed in the Varna system on the basis of the qualities and work of a person. 4.5.3. Shri Narayan Guru (1856 1928): He was a great social reformer from Kerala. He was a great scholar, philosopher and one of the forerunners of social renaissance in Kerala. He brought awakening among the dalits and Adivasis and worked for humanity and worldwide fraternity. He strongly opposed caste system, untouchability, 20 Sarswati Dayanand, (Translation by Joshi Shripad), (2004), Satyartha Prakash-Arya Samaj, Mumbai, Intorduction. 170

child marriages, rituals, and Brahmanical priesthood. He expressed his reformist thoughts in his book, Jatimimamsa. His temples were open to all Hindus and non-hindus without any discrimination of caste, creed or gender as he believed that the temples would not be anybody s monopoly. He along with his followers encouraged the inter-caste marriages and inter-caste dining for eradication of the caste system. He was monotheistic and Oneness of Humanity was his dream. In 1921, in the All Kerala Fraternity Conference held at Aluva, he proclaimed his famous message, One Caste, One Religion and One God to Mankind. 21 It was an appeal to the mankind to unite, instead of breaking down in the name of caste and religion. He believed that a person is always important than a caste and desired to create a society based on equality and so worked hard to achieve his goal throughout the life. He even confronted with Gandhiji on the issue of equality of the mankind as later believed in the Varna based division of human beings. These socio-religious reform movements accepted modernity in general and rejected evil practices but did not rejected the root causes and so the impact of such movements though reflected in some or more sections of the society, the Brahmanical religion revives and became an obstacle to the process of social change in India. The year 1848 was remarked by the great change all over the world. Karl Marx released his Communist Manifesto in the year 1848, and the first women s right convention was held in the same year at the Wesleyan Church in Seneca Falls, New York. The State of Satara was annexed to the British India by Lord Dalhousie in the same year. 22 In Maharashtra the first generation was came up with English Education and it had tremendous impact along with the British administration upon both the social and political ideas of the Marathi 21 www.realbharat.org/sree-narayanguru 22 Keer Dhananjay, (1964), Mahatma Jotirao Phooley: Father of the Indian Social Revolution, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, reprinted 2013, p. 20. 171

people in general and intelligentsia in particular. Maharashtra thus had begun to react to the Western knowledge and modern concepts and understand the need to generate a social change. The new generation of the socio-religious reformers and the political thinkers was become prominent in the Maharashtra and particularly in Pune. Some of them realised the necessity of immediate social reforms while others were thinking about the political reforms and this conflict occupied the history of Maharashtra in the second half of the nineteenth century. Some of the early notable social reformers were Balshastri Jambhekar, Dadoba Pandurang Tarkhadkar, Jagannath (Nana) Shankarsheth, Lokhitwadi Gopal Hari Deshmukh, justice Mahadeo Govind, Ranade etc. They were enlightened by the modern concepts of liberty, equality, liberalism, justice etc. and caring about the social conditions prevailing in their community. 4.5.4 Bal Shastri Jambhekar (1812 A. D. 1846 A. D.): Acharya Bal Shastri Jambhekar was the first reformer in Maharashtra and started the first Marathi newspaper, Weekly Darpan in 1832 23 and he also started a first Marathi magazine, Digdarshan, in 1840. 24 Thus he became the pioneer of the Marathi Press media. He pleaded for the education of women and remarriage of the widows, opposed strongly to the evil practices like child marriages and the practice of sati, as early as in 1830 s. He believed that education is of immense importance for the improvement of social conditions prevailing in India and he considered education as the potential for it. He demanded schools for technical education along with scientific books, because without which, he believed, the scientific knowledge could not be used for the material progress of the society. 25 He 23 Keer Dhananjay, (1964), Mahatma Jotirao Phooley: Father of the Indian Social Revolution, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, reprinted 2013, p. 21. 24 Dixit Raja, (2009), Ekonisavya Shatkatil Maharashtra: Madhyamvargacha Uday, Diamond 25 Publication, Pune, p. 77. Jambhekar G. G. (1950), Acharya Bal Shastri Jambhekar Yanche Jeevanvrutta v lekhsangraha, Vol. 3, Pune, p. 332. 172

belongs to early era of social reforms and devoid of courage to face the crucial issues of caste system and religion. 26 His contribution to socio-religious reform movements is important in the sense that it encouraged the women s education and widow remarriages. 4.5.5 Dadoba Pandurang Tarkhadkar (1814 A. D. 1882 A. D.): Dadoba Pandurang Tarkhadkar was one of the early social reformers in Maharashtra. He was an intelligent person, studied hard and achieved the posts of Educational Inspector and then Deputy Collector. He started his socioreligious reform movement by establishing the Manavdharma Sabha in 1844 and the Paramhamsa Sabha in 1849. 27 He critically examined the religion and its scriptures and developed his own vies on the Hinduism. The Paramhamsa Sabha was a secret theistic society for breaking down all social barriers and the caste system. 28 He condemned the idolatry as a source of all kinds of superstitious ritualism (karmakand) and also rejected the caste system. He also criticised the Varna system and its birth story by asking a relevant question that how the god created thousands of people of other religions, who would not came under the Varna system. 29 But he did not reject the Varna system completely as that of the caste system and favoured the Varna division based on quality and work. Accordingto Prof. Umesh Bagade, though he accepted the Deist concept of equality, he also accepted the authorities and social division of the Varna system and thus being a rational thinker, he advocated Varna system in the rigid social atmosphere of the nineteenth century. 30 He was known as 26 More Dinesh, (2008), Sudharkancha Sudharak Krantiba Phule, K. S. Publications, Pune, p. 62. 27 Priyolkar A. K. (1966), Paramhamsasabha v Tiche Adhyakshya Ramchandra Balkrushna, Mumbai Marathi Granth Sangrahalaya, Mumbai, p. 20 and 36. 28 Keer Dhananjay, (1964), Mahatma Jotirao Phooley: Father of the Indian Social Revolution, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, reprinted 2013, p. 22. 29 Priyolkar A. K. (1966), Paramhamsasabha v Tiche Adhyakshya Ramchandra Balkrushna, Mumbai Marathi Granth Sangrahalaya, Mumbai, p. 101 and 102. 30 Bagade Umesh, (2006), Maharashtratil Prabodhan Ani Wargjatiprabhutva (Resurgence and Class, Caste Dominance in Maharashtra), Sugava Publication, Pune, p. 159. 173

Panini of Marathi (well-known Sanskrit Grammarian), as he wrote the grammar of Marathi language. In 1843, Dadoba wrote an essay, entitled, Darmavivechan, (Thoughts on Religion), in which he desired the social change based on the equality and justice. 31 He focused on seven main principles of social and religious changes: 1. There is only one God, who is worshipped. 2. The actual religion is to love God and devotion to him with moral behaviour. 3. There is only one religion of all the human beings. 4. There must be a liberty to each and every person. 5. Our acts must be rational. 6. The Human being is the only one caste. 7. There must be an access to everybody to a proper knowledge. Dadoba was thinking in the broad interest of all the human beings, without any discrimination of caste, creed, religion or gender. According to J. V. Naik, Dadoba alerts us to be careful about not to use the power, rather to behave properly for the great interests of the society and so the evil practice in the name of religion should be dismissed from the social life. It is evident from this that he was advocating a social law and state s interference for the betterment of the society.it is also clear that he advocated the knowledge for everybody for the progress of the society and thus he believed in the power and potential of the knowledge to get rid of the unjust and evil practices of the society. He was a non-brahmin, an intellectual and so might have thought deeply about the worst conditions of the dalits and women, prevailing during the nineteenth century in Maharashtra; but being a rational he did not rejected the Varna based 31 Naik J. V., (1998), Jotirao, Paramhamsa Ani Prarthana Samaj, in Narake Hari, (Ed.), Mahatma Phule: ShodhachyaNavyaVata, Mahatma Phule Charitra Sadhane Prakashan Samiti, Mumbai, p. 251. 174

division of the society and found the better future of the society in the Varna system and so advocated it. But his contribution to the socio-religious reform movements is vital in the contemporary scenario. The Paramahamsa Sabha was a secret revolutionary socio-religious reform society in Mumbai, which desired to bring all the people together as it believed that there is only one God, and it also worked hard, though secretly, for eradication of the evil practices prevailing in the society and for establishing unity of all human beings. 32 Thus Dadoba Pandurang Tarkhadkar devotedly worked for the socio-religious awakening in the society through his thoughts and efforts. 4.5.6 Lokhitwadi Gopal Hari Deshmukh (1823 A. D. 1892 A. D.): Gopal Hari Deshmukh is popularly known as Lokhitwadi, a sponsor of popular welfare, was committed to modernity and to create society based on modern values. He accused the orthodox Brahmins for not supporting the socio-religious reforms. In his Shatapatre, a bunch of hundred letters published in Prabhakar, a weekly newspaper, he bitterly criticised the folly and ignorance and hypocrisy of the Brahmins. 33 The Brahmins were leading the Hindu society and so the condition of the Brahmin caste is regarded by him as the representation of the whole Hindu society and therefore he devoted aggressively to reform the condition of the Brahmin caste. He also desired the Brahmins would establish industrial capitalism in India. 34 He condemned the caste system, child marriages, superstitious rituals, women s degradation, inequality and ignorance towards scientific knowledge 32 Naik J. V., (1998), Jotirao, Paramhamsa Ani Prarthana Samaj, in Narake Hari, (Ed.), Mahatma Phule: Shodhachya Navya Vata, Mahatma Phule Charitra Sadhane Prakashan Samiti, Mumbai, p. 257. 33 Phadake Y. D. (1975), Social Reformers of Maharashtra, Maharashtra Information Centre, Mumbai, p. 8. 34 Bagade Umesh, (2006), Maharashtratil Prabodhan Ani Wargjatiprabhutva (Resurgence and Class, Caste Dominance in Maharashtra), Sugava Publication, Pune, p. 165. 175

and material progress. While criticising the social system, he pointed out that Hindu society remained internally divided on account of three factors- caste differences, degraded position of women and child marriages. 35 He advocated believing in the Vedas rather than in Puranas or the customs prevailing at that time and rejected the false stories in the Puranas with the help of rationalism. 36 He accused the Brahmins for sponsoring superstitious ritualism as the greed to earn money and suggested to accept western modern knowledge so as to achieve materialistic prosperity.lokhitwadi had accepted Emanuel Kant s stand on empiricism and rationalism and advocated the existence of the God, and rejected ritualism by suggesting that service to mankind is the service to God. 37 His attraction of materialist progress of industrialist and capitalist society is evident from his thoughts, and when stated that the aim of a man should bring material prosperity by working vigorously. 38 He propounded the economic nationalism and the Parliament for Hindustan, in the middle of the nineteenth century, when people were still under the impact of autocracy. 39 He was the creator of the national consciousness in India. In the opinion of Acharya Jawadekar Lokhitwadi Gopal Hari Deshmukh was the first person to place before Marathi readers, such views about democracy and revolution and his views on India s Independence were more progressive than the contemporary Bengali counterparts. 40 Lokhitwadi Gopal Hari Deshmukh advocated equality and justice and at the same time distinctly demonstrated the quest for true awareness for injustice 35 Kshire Vasant, (1977), Lokhitwadi s Thought: A Critical Study, University of Poona, Poona, p. 59. 36 Bagade Umesh, (2006), Maharashtratil Prabodhan Ani Wargjatiprabhutva (Resurgence and Class, Caste Dominance in Maharshtra), Sugava Publication, Pune, p. 168. 37 Priyolkar A. K., (Ed.), (1967), Lokhitwadikrut Nibandhsangraha, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, p. 48. 38 Bagade Umesh, opp. Cited, p. 174. 39 Dixit Raja, (2009), Ekonisavya Shatkatil Maharashtra: Madhyamvargacha Uday, Diamond Publication, Pune, p. 77. 40 Kshire Vasant, opp. cited, p. 150. 176

towards the oppressed sections and to foster socio-religious reforms. He had not only discussed the social and religious conditions of India, but also noticed the economic and political issues as well. He expressed the gratitude for political thinking and ideology of the British and also was hopeful that India would regain her freedom. According to G. B. Sardar, the objection that his ideology was pro-british was not true, he believed that everything happened in the world was as per the will of the God and so the British Rule in India was according to the God plan, and the British administration was superior to the old rules in India and within the British Rule, the modernization of India would happen and Indians would learn to administer independently. 41 Lokhitwadi believed that the Brahmins being leaders of the Hindu society were to go for modernization. He advocated the marriages between different sub-castes of the Brahmin according to economic condition, but not the inter-caste marriages. He rejected the concept of inter-caste marriage and did not allow the Brahmins to marry with a member of any other caste. 42 He appealed the Brahmins strongly for widow remarriage by pointing out that remarriages of widow would help to maintain morality among the Brahmins. Thus he advocated reforms for controlling morality within the Brahmin caste only. 43 Lokhitwadi advocated reinstalling the Varna system but he did not want to discard the caste system, not even to destroy caste differences based on birth, rather he wanted to remove the severity in the feeling of hating other caste, the concepts of high-low castes and untouchability. 44 Lokhitwadi was impressed by the western ideas and culture and more by the materialist progress achieved by 41 Sardar G. B., (1981), Mahatma Phule Vyaktitva Ani Vichar, Granthali Prakashan, Mumbai, p. 38. 42 Sumant Yashwant, Punde Dattatraya, (ed.), (1988), Maharashtratil Jatisanshtavishyak Vichar, Pratima Prakashan, Pune, p. 16. 43 Bagade Umesh, (2006), Maharashtratil Prabodhan Ani Wargjatiprabhutva (Resurgence and Class, Caste Dominance in Maharshtra), Sugava Publication, Pune, p. 179. 44 Ibid, 181. 177

the western culture by establishing industrial capitalism in Europe. He was deeply concerned about the progress of Hindu society in general and the Brahmin caste in particular. Therefore he was advocating the Brahmins to get educated on western lines with accepting the English Education. According to Prof. Rege M. P., Lokhitwadi had stressed on the morality based on the rationalism to bring out the socio-religious reforms in the Hindu society and also stressed on its need in the middle of the nineteenth century; to remove the evil practices, which had become the strong obstacle in inculcating reforms, would have been seen as the socio-religious reforms. Lokhitwadi while advocating social reforms has stressed on the morality based on the rationalism, but at the same time his concept of morality based on rationalism lacked the important aspect of justice to all. 45 His reforms were meant for the Brahmin caste only. According to Prof. Umesh Bagade, Lokhitwadi accepted the orientalist ideology of praising ancient Indian history and the Hinduism. He advocated the concept of Hindu Nationalism based on the pride of ancient Hinduism by glorifying the Brahmins of the ancient times. He made the advent of the Muslim responsible for the deterioration of the Hindus. He states that the coming of the Muslim powers in India made Hindus as their slaves and there was a great loss of patriotism, knowledge, bravery and luxury among the Hindus. 46 He advocated the reforms on the basis of the religious books initially, but later on under the impact of rationalism he advocated to reject the Shastras. His rationalism was even rejecting religious books if they do not allow the better practices for healthy social behaviour. At the same time he did not have courage to face the orthodox Brahmins, it was evident when his name was 45 Rege M. P., (2002), Vivek Va Nyaya: Adhunik Maharashtratil Prabodhanparva, Pratima Prakashan, Pune, p. 99. 46 Bagade Umesh, (2006), Maharashtratil Prabodhan Ani Wargjatiprabhutva (Resurgence and Class, Caste Dominance in Maharashtra), Sugava Publication, Pune, p. 182. 178

printed on the invitation card of the widow remarriage and he could not attend it when Mujumdar of Baroda, the father-in-law of his daughter had threatened him not to attend that widow remarriage. 47 He had condemned the Warkari sect by stating that it includes the low-caste people, women, old, peasant etc. and proclaimed that the Brahmins and their knowledge was of high level. 48 Lokhitwadi accepted the ideology of Arya Samaj regarding the purification of Hinduism, which was according to him, adulterated due to practices of Islam. Both Swami Dayanand Saraswati and Lokhitwadi had assumed the Hindu identity as national identity and so religious fanaticism is located in their ideologies as a result of the pride of the Hinduism. 49 Thus both failed to create a secular ideology for the vast and varied country like India.Lokhitwadi was not able to come out of his caste pride of the Brahmanism while writing Shatpatre at the young age, but he even turned towards sectarian thoughts of the Aryasamajists. Many colours of his religious thoughts can be seen through his thoughts at different stages of his life and every time he was advocating the welfare of his own caste, the Brahmin. He even could not be able to advocate for the liberty of a person due to his thinking within the framework of Brahmanism. He assumed the welfare of the society by the Brahmins only and so he could not advocate the liberty for persons of the other castes. He cared more of Hinduism than that of his own thoughts on industrial capitalism, his concept of reform, knowledge, education everything was limited to his caste fellows as he assumed the Brahmins as the leaders of the Hindu society. But after all his limitations he did not detached from his thoughts of transformation towards the industrial capitalism. 47 Parikh Govardhan, Parikh Indumati, (1988), Lokhitwadi Samagra Wngamaya, Vol. 1, Maharashtra Rajya Sahitya Sanskruti Mandal, Mumbai, p. 12. 48 Priyolkar A. K., (ed.), (1967), Lokhitwadikrut Nibandhsangraha, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai, p. 437. 49 Bagade Umesh, (2006), Maharashtratil Prabodhan Ani Wargjatiprabhutva (Resurgence and Class, Caste Dominance in Maharashtra), Sugava Publication, Pune, p. 190. 179

4.5.7 Durgaram Manchharam (1809 A. D. 1878 A. D.): Durgaram Manchharam Mehtaji established the Manav Dharma Sabha in 1844, which was the first institution established for the socio-religious reform movements. While working as a teacher in Surat, he started Manav Dharma Sabha with his friends Dadoba Pandurang Tarkhadkar, Dinmani Shankar, Dalpatram Bhagubai, Damodar Das. Manav Dharma Sabha had rejected all kinds of superstitions prevailing in the Hindu society, rejected child marriages, advocated and encouraged the widow remarriage. Durgaram Manchharam established Pustak Prasarak Mandali in 1842, for working in the social and cultural fields. It then became the Manav Dharma Sabha. It also appealed the converted youngsters to rejoin the Hinduism. Though the institution could not be long lasting, it paved way for the Paramhaamsa Mandali in Mumbai. 50 4.5.8 Gopal Ganesh Agarkar (1856 A. D. - 1895 A. D.): Gopal Ganesh Agarkar is well-known in Maharashtra for his deep concern with rationalism, which he advocated and lived without caring the severe criticism of the contemporary orthodox group led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak. He devoted his life for social awakening of the society with the spread of the knowledge and educating people through the medium of press and educational institutes. He believed in the basic principles of rationalism, liberty and equality for the social awakening and worked restlessly for his goal. Being a proud of Indian Culture, he strongly opposed Shastrapramany, i.e. belief in the Shastras, religious booksand the evil practices prevalent in the society. Tilak and Agarkar were working together since their college days and started two newspapers, Kesari and Maratha, of which Agarkar was the first editor of Kesari since 4 th January, 1881. There was a question of whether Political reforms first or Social reforms? during the decade from 50 Sardesai B. N., (2000), Adhunik Maharashtra (1818-1960), Phadake Prakashan, Second Edition, p. 108. 180

1885 to 1895 in Maharashtra, Agarkar expressed his belief in social reforms vibrantly without any fear of orthodox. His philosophy was based on rationalism and liberty and is evident from his writings. 51 Agarkar had a faith and pride of Indian culture and even than he condemned the belief in religious scriptures and belief in evil customs; he rather believed that though these practices may be useful for society in ancient times, they must be eradicated during the present days. 52 Agarkar severely criticised the belief in the scriptures with his rational views and the old believers in Shastras could not defend him, and the responsibility to defend him went to Tilak and other highly educated group. The social reformers could not free themselves from the religious beliefs before 1870, but after twenty years the situation was changed and the social reformers began to advocate more aggressively and so responsibility to defend the old practices automatically went on the orthodox intelligentsia, the credit must be given to Agarkar. 53 There may be some personal differences between Tilak and Agarkar, but the differences in the field of socio-political reforms began with introduction of a Bill for removal of child marriages by Behramji Malbari. 54 Agarkar was advocating social reforms while Tilak was a leader of an orthodox group. Agarkar believed in the person s value, society was made for a person and person is not made for the society. Person being live has more importance but society is nothing without a person, it has no existence without person, though person is a part of society. 55 51 Pandit Nalini, (1974), Maharashtratil Rashtravadacha Vikas, Modern Book Depot, Pune, p. 60. 52 Ibid, p. 62. 53 Pandit Nalini, (1974), Maharashtratil Rashtravadacha Vikas, Modern Book Depot, Pune, p. 63. 54 Deshpande Sunanda, (1983), Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, Shri Vidya Prakashan, Pune, p. 257. 55 Pandit Nalini, op. cit. p. 67. 181

Agarkar had given prime importance to rationality and his ideal society was a rational society. He believed in the necessity of social change and so he wrote that there was a lot of difference between the rules and the ruled and so if ruled failed to accept the good part of western culture and only stuck to the old practices, it would have possible that the Indians would be driven to the position just like Red Indians in America. 56 I t is evident from his thoughts that he was quite aware of the socio-economical and material progress of the western countries and appealed to accept those acceptable views of the west so as to cope up with the rest of the world. There was a great impact of social philosophy of the western philosophers like John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, etc. on Agarkar. The impact of Spencer on him is reflected many times through his writings. 57 He was thus a staunch believer in rationalism and worked hard in the socio-religious awakening of the society. Agarkar was advocating the socio-religious reforms with his rational thinking and he even condemned the untouchability and the degraded position of the women. It is evident from his writings that he wanted to eradicate the evil practice of untouchability and proclaimed that it would be better to see when there was an inter-dining with the untouchables. He also condemned the practice of child marriage and appealed to the youth to take oath not marry not to marry girls until they reached to the age of puberty. 58 He believed that the people should know the adverse effect of the child marriage and hoped that the spread of education among women would stop the evil practice of early marriages 59. 56 Rege M. P., (2002), Vivek Va Nyaya: Adhunik Maharashtratil Prabodhanparva, Pratima Prakashan, Pune, p. 154. 57 Fadkule Nirmalkumar, (ed.), (1978), Prabodhanatil Paulkhuna, Continental Prakashan, Pune, Second Edition, 1997, p. 69. 58 Bhosale Narayan, (2008), Maharashtratil Strivishayak Sudharnavadache Sattakaran, The Taichi Prakashan, Pune, p. 77. 59 Pradhan G. P. (Ed.), (1971), Agarkar Lekhsangraha, SahityaAkademi, New Delhi, Second Edition, p. 76. 182

He strongly supported the Age of Consent Act, 1891, which raised the age of consent for sexual intercourse for all girls from ten to twelve. The orthodox group under the leadership was opposing it on the ground that the alien government should not interfere in the social matters of the Hindus. But Agarkar supported the Bill as he believed in the social change for the progress of human being. Agarkar also took on Tilak on the issue of establishing a girl s high school; Tilak suggested not introducing English education to women. Agarkar opposed his suggestion and reacted as, It is a plain foolishness to assume that women will become immoral and irreverent because of education. To say this is to deny them their very place among human beings and one who holds this conviction would also have to admit that all the education that men are now getting is making them incapable of handling the responsibilities of the household and that all our institutions are vile places meant to teach young boys how to be immoral and unjust. It is our firm belief that all education will have equal benefit for both men and women and that the more women like Gargi and Maitryeyi that we have, will (put) this country on the path of freedom. 60 It is evident from above that Agarkar was firm on women s education and gender equality and answered the objections of the orthodox party in a firm language and questioning of their own institutions and whether their working was fruitful or not. When Tilak party reacted that educated women would neglect domestic responsibilities, Agarkar pointed out, that there is no rule that all domestic work should be done by women alone; similarly one cannot prove that women should limit themselves to producing children 61 It shows that Agarkar was criticising orthodox approach towards women and also expressed his views on gender equality. He argued vehemently on the women s right to education. He further argued that, 60 Rao Parimala, (2010), Foundations of Tilak s Nationalism: Discrimination, Education and Hindutva, Orient Black Swan, Hyderabad, p. 103. 61 Ibd, p. 103. 183

some men feel that if women study science they would lose faith in religion, and others oppose women s education as they fear that women will learn what is best for them and men will have to abandon the habitual oppression 62 He rightly pointed out the oppression of the women was the common feature of those days and argues for the emancipation of women. He was so confident on imparting English Education to women and so continues: these foot-soldiers will not be able to make even a dent in a fort of women s education. 63 He believed in the potential of education and so advocated a coeducation for both boys and girls for their progress.he was advocator of women s freedom and so desired the gender equality in getting jobs on the basis of merit and not mere privilege of being born a man. He further expressed his view, all paid employment and professions would ultimately be linked with brain power and ability, and be available to men and women equally according to these criteria. 64 Agarkar knew that the Brahmanical religion made a woman dependent on her male counterparts throughout the life and so he demanded women s education to make her self-dependent so that she should not be treated harshly after her husband. Thus he looked into the issue of women s education very keenly and studiously and demanded her economic stability. He was strong advocator of women s education and gender equality and also believed in the ability of women as against the orthodox view that women do not know anything rather than Chulani Mul, means preparing meal and producing child. He emphasized on the freedom of women along with men when he said, Freedom should be available to men and women to practice profession of their choice, to acquire as much knowledge as desired, to pass the 62 Ibid, p. 103. 63 Ibid, p. 103. 64 Rao Parimala, (2010), Foundations of Tilak s Nationalism: Discrimination, Education and Hindutva, Orient BlackSwan, Hyderabad, p. 103. 184