Jesuit Contribution to Science

Jesuit Contribution to Science

Agustín Udías Jesuit Contribution to Science A History

Agustín Udías Department of Geophysics and Meteorology Complutense University of Madrid Madrid, Spain ISBN 978-3-319-08364-3 ISBN 978-3-319-08365-0 (ebook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-08365-0 Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2014947464 Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Preface The presence of the Jesuits in different fields of the natural sciences is an interesting phenomenon that has attracted academic and general attention and can be found in the literature. The Jesuits are popularly known as religious persons who are involved in scientific work, and they appear as such in some science fiction novels. A few years after its founding in 1540 by Saint Ignatius of Loyola, the Society of Jesus undertook its educational endeavor as the key instrument of its apostolic work. From the beginning, as a novelty for the time, a special attention was given in the first colleges to the teaching of mathematics and astronomy. This coincided with the origins of modern science, and Jesuit professors were in contact with many of its key figures, such as Galileo, Kepler, Huygens, and Newton. Jesuit missionaries introduced European mathematics and astronomy to China and India; made the first maps of the unknown regions of America, Asia, and Africa; and brought to Europe the first news about the geography, animals, and plants of those lands. The scientific work of the Jesuits during the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries until the suppression of the order in 1773 is the subject of a large number of studies. Less known is the Jesuit scientific contribution during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, especially in the fields of astronomy, geophysics, and meteorology. Although a good number of books and articles have been published about partial aspects of the history of Jesuit scientists, especially for the first period, there is no complete history that covers both periods in a unified form. This is the aim of the present book. Among other things, this book tries to answer three main questions: what moved the Jesuits to give an important place to mathematics and astronomy in their first colleges in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, why did they after their restoration in the nineteenth century establish a worldwide network of observatories, and what happened after the 1970s that caused the closing of the observatories and the decrease of Jesuit presence in science. Given the wide extension of the material this book tries to cover, I have had to select the persons and contributions that I consider most relevant, without attempting to study them at the depth that would be possible. It may be intriguing to some that a religious order of the Catholic Church has had a v

vi Preface continuous contribution to make to science still maintained today. This book may help to answer these questions by giving an overall image, as complete as possible, of the history of that contribution. Moreover, I try to find a relation between the scientific work of the Jesuits and their spirituality. Thus, this book is directed to all those interested in the scientific work of the Jesuits and who are curious about the reasons behind it. The book begins with a discussion on Christopher Clavius, Professor of Mathematics in the Roman College between 1567 and 1595, the initiator of this tradition (Chap. 1 ). It was in his time that relations between the Jesuits and Galileo began, an important factor in the history of science. The first five chapters cover the Jesuits scientific contributions especially in mathematics, astronomy, and physics, before the suppression of the Society in 1773. Contributions of professors of mathematics, astronomy and physics are presented in Chap. 2. Two key figures of this period are Kircher and Boscovich, both discussed in Chap. 3. Scientific work progressed at the almost 600 Jesuit colleges in Europe where 32 astronomical observatories were installed, the first in several countries. Chapter 4 presents the extraordinary adventure of the Jesuit astronomers in China, starting with the arrival to Beijing of Matteo Ricci in 1601. For 150 years, the Jesuits were the directors of the Imperial Astronomical Observatory and held the dignity of mandarins. Less known is the work of Jesuit astronomers in India and their failed journey to Indochina. Chapter 5 deals with Jesuit naturalists, geographers, and explorers. The discovery of America gave the Jesuits the possibility to study and to make known in Europe the characteristics and novelties of the geography and fauna and flora of those hitherto unknown lands. The Jesuits explored those new lands from Canada to Patagonia, and they were the first Europeans to navigate the great rivers, the Mississippi, the Amazon, and the Orinoco. Their interest in geography led to an impressive work of cartography, preparing the first maps of many regions of America, China, India, Tibet, and Ethiopia. This work was interrupted by the suppression of the order by Pope Clement XIV in 1773. After their restoration in 1814, the Jesuits resumed their scientific work. To this period, the book dedicates its last five chapters. In this period, the Jesuits scientific work changed with respect to the earlier periods and had a somewhat apologetic character aimed against those who attacked the Church at that time in opposition to science. The Jesuits scientific work was an answer to such attacks. From 1825, the Jesuits established a new network of about 70 observatories throughout the world, as presented in Chap. 6. Many of those installed in Africa, Asia, and Central and South America were the first such scientific institutions in those countries. The contribution to the study of terrestrial magnetism (Chap. 6 ), tropical hurricanes (Chap. 7 ), and earthquakes (Chap. 8 ) was especially important. Exceptional among the most relevant figures, presented in Chap. 9, are Secchi in astrophysics, Perry in geophysics and astronomy, Macelwane in seismology, and Teilhard de Chardin in geology and paleontology, who was also famous for his influential thought on the relation between evolution and Christian faith. At the present time, the Jesuits manage 133 universities and more than 300 secondary schools. In Chap. 10, I deal with

Preface vii modern Jesuit scientists in universities and schools, where they combine teaching and research, and there is special mention of those dedicated to biology. After this overview of the five centuries of the Jesuit scientific tradition, unique in the Catholic Church, one may still have questions about the reasons behind it. In the Epilogue, I try to answer this question by linking dedication to science with the specific Jesuit spirituality. Saint Ignatius insisted that the Jesuits strive to find God in all things. In this spirit, the Jesuits endeavor in their apostolic work to enter the field of scientific research as a mission territory. Thus, patient work in observatories and laboratories is for the Jesuits as appropriate as preaching or pastoral work in parish churches. For them, science as knowledge and as an instrument for the good of mankind is also a means for the propagation of the Christian faith. Following this long tradition, the Jesuits have trodden an uncommon path to the frontiers where the Christian message has not yet reached. Given the large amount of material to be covered, broad brushstrokes are needed to present this interesting history. Many items and persons that may have deserved mention had unfortunately to be left out. But I have made an effort to present at least the most representative items. The Jesuits and their work are presented in the context of the history of science. In particular, I delve into the relation of the Jesuits with important scientists of their time. In order to highlight Jesuit scientists biographical information (dates of birth and death) is only given for them. The bibliography, though quite large, has been restricted to the most important works. Except for a few of them, books by Jesuit scientists referred to in the text are not included in the bibliography. I have made abundant use of the Diccionario Histórico de la Compañía de Jesús edited by O Neill and Domínguez and of the Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus by Sommervogel, verifying in them all the Jesuits mentioned, although not quoting them explicitly in each case. The book discusses a total of 363 Jesuit scientists: 50 mathematicians; 45 physicists; 110 astronomers; 70 geophysicists, geologists, and meteorologists; 4 chemists; 21 biologists; 39 naturalists, geographers, and cartographers; and 24 explorers (Appendix 1 ). In fact this is only a small sample of the large number of Jesuits dedicated to science since the foundation of the Society of Jesus. The Dictionary of Scientifi c Biography, edited by Gillespie, included 29 of the Jesuits mentioned here (Appendix 2 ). These may be considered the most representative. Finally, I want to thank all those who have contributed to this work, first of all Joseph Munitiz S.J. of Campion Hall (Oxford), who patiently corrected the English text. I acknowledge the help from librarians and archivists of Jesuit libraries and archives, especially those of Rome, Paris, Cologne, and London, and from many Jesuit observatories and universities that made available their publications and documents. I also thank the many Jesuit companions who have encouraged me in my work. Madrid, Spain Agustín Udías

Contents 1 Clavius and Mathematics in the Collegio Romano... 1 1.1 Mathematics in the First Jesuit Colleges... 1 1.2 Christopher Clavius, the Beginning of a Tradition... 4 1.3 Clavius and Mathematics in the Ratio studiorum... 9 1.4 The Debate About the Certainty of Mathematics... 12 1.5 Disciples and Successors... 14 1.6 The Jesuits and Galileo... 17 2 Mathematics, Astronomy and Physics in Colleges and Observatories... 23 2.1 From the Geometry of Euclid to the Integral Calculus... 23 2.2 The First Astronomical Observatories... 29 2.3 Acceptance of the Heliocentric System... 35 2.4 The Transits of Venus... 40 2.5 Mathematical and Experimental Physics... 43 2.6 Optics and Magnetism... 47 2.7 Introduction of Modern Physics... 50 3 Kircher and Boscovich, Two Leading Figures... 55 3.1 Athanasius Kircher, His Work and Museum... 55 3.2 The Cosmic Force of Magnetism... 60 3.3 The Mysteries of the Geocosmos... 63 3.4 Light, Sound and a Journey Through the Cosmos... 65 3.5 Roger Boscovich and Modern Science... 68 3.6 A Dynamic Atomic Theory... 71 3.7 Mathematics, Astronomy, Optics and Geodesy... 74 4 Jesuit Astronomers in China and India... 79 4.1 Matteo Ricci, from Macerata to Beijing... 79 4.2 The Reform of the Calendar... 84 4.3 Johann Schall and Ferdinad Verbiest... 87 ix

x Contents 4.4 Jesuit Directors of the Imperial Observatory... 93 4.5 The French Mission... 95 4.6 The French Expedition to Siam... 97 4.7 Jesuit Astronomers in India... 99 4.8 Scientific Exchange Between West and East... 102 5 Naturalists, Geographers and Explorers... 105 5.1 Acosta and the Nature of American Lands... 105 5.2 Jesuit Naturalists of the New World and Asia... 109 5.3 The Interest for Geography... 116 5.4 The Maps of Far-Off Lands... 119 5.5 Entering Unknown Lands... 124 5.6 Exploring the New Lands of America... 129 6 The New Observatories... 133 6.1 A New Beginning... 133 6.2 Returning to Astronomy... 137 6.3 Observatories in Mission Lands... 143 6.4 Observatories in Central and South America... 149 6.5 The Vatican Observatory... 151 6.6 The Earth s Magnetism... 154 7 Meteorology. Tropical Hurricanes... 157 7.1 Pioneers and First Observations... 157 7.2 Meteorology in Modern Observatories... 159 7.3 Caribbean Hurricanes... 163 7.4 Typhoons and Cyclones in the Philippines... 167 7.5 Cyclones in the China Sea and the Indian Ocean... 171 8 Earthquakes and Seismology... 175 8.1 Early Jesuit Studies of Earthquakes... 175 8.2 Seismological Stations in Europe... 177 8.3 Seismology in North America. Jesuit Seismological Association... 179 8.4 Seismology in Central and South America... 184 8.5 Seismological Stations in Asia, Africa and Oceania... 188 8.6 The Study of Microseisms... 189 8.7 Jesuits and Seismological Organizations... 191 9 Four Great Modern Scientists... 193 9.1 Angelo Secchi, Pioneer of Astrophysics... 193 9.2 Solar and Stellar Physics... 195 9.3 Unification of Physical Forces... 197 9.4 Stephen J. Perry, Astronomer and Geophysicist... 199 9.5 Perry s Scientific Expeditions... 201 9.6 James B. Macelwane, a Great Seismologist... 203 9.7 Macelwane, Professor and Educator... 206 9.8 Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, Geologist, Philosopher and Mystic... 207 9.9 From Cosmogenesis to Christogenesis... 211

Contents xi 10 The Sciences in Colleges and Universities... 215 10.1 In the Training of Jesuits... 215 10.2 Science Departments in Universities... 221 10.3 Science Teaching in Secondary Schools... 225 10.4 The New Naturalists and Biologists... 226 10.5 Jesuit Scientists in Other Institutions... 229 10.6 Modern Jesuits and Science... 230 11 Epilogue: The Jesuit Scientific Tradition... 235 11.1 Science and Spirituality... 235 11.2 Testimony from Jesuit Scientists... 239 11.3 The Practice of Scientific Research and Jesuit Life... 243 Appendices... 247 Appendix 1... 247 List of Jesuit Scientists... 247 Appendix 2... 256 Jesuit Scientists in Gillespie s Dictionary...... 256 Bibliography... 257 Index... 269